The Importance of Effective Testing and Assessment in Education

by Herman Bailey | Apr 20, 2023 | Essays | 0 comments

Introduction

The paper details developing a writing test and evaluating its validity, reliability, and practicality. This is a group work of partners of a designed short test that is relevant to ELI context on writing skills. The test has been evaluated in the light of principles of language assessment. The paper first reviewed the literature on how to assess the writing skills and techniques of testing. Furthermore, the literature review examined the principles of language assessment which included content validity, construct validity, inter-rater reliability, and practicality. Additionally, the literature on test specifications was reviewed and how they are related to validity, reliability, and practicality before discussing the models and formats of test specifications. The paper chose Bachman and Palmer’s format as the test specification model. The developed writing test in the appendix has been analyzed by discussing its test specifications according to Bachman and Palmer’s format. Finally, the paper discussed the test evaluation methods about the content and construct validity, inter-rater reliability, and practicality evaluation. A writing test developed on test specifications is valid, reliable, and practical.

People Also Read

• Avoid These Common Writing Errors: Tips for Native and Non-Native Speakers

Literature Review

Assessing Writing Skill

Continuous assessment of the writing skills is vital to the effective teaching of writing skills to the students. Assessments based on curriculum can be used in assessing the process and product of writing and should also consider the purpose as well. According to Diane (1990), the writing skills can be assessed through self-observational and observational checklists. However, the writing products can be evaluated based on five product factors which include content, fluency, conventions, vocabulary, and syntax. Douglas (2010) asserted that samples of writing should also be assessed across different writing purposes to give a holistic picture of the writing performance of the students across different text genres and structures. These simple measures can fulfill different assessment functions including planning instruction, identifying the strengths and weaknesses, giving feedback, evaluating instructional activities, reporting progress, and monitoring performance.

The first responsibility of the teacher is to provide writing opportunities and encouragements to the students who are attempting to write. The second responsibility of the teacher is promotion of success in students’ writings. These are done by teachers through careful monitoring of student writings to assess their weaknesses and strengths, teaching specific strategies and skills of writings in response to the needs of the students, and finally giving feedback that reinforces skills newly learned and correct the recurring problems. These responsibilities of the teachers upon inspection reveal that the assessment of writing skills is a vital part of good classroom instruction.

Airasian (1996) in his study identified three types of assessments in the classroom for writing skills. The first was referred to as “sizing up” assessments, which is usually conducted during the first week in school to give the teacher quick information about the level of the writing skills of the students before beginning their instruction. Instructional assessment, which is the second type, is applied during the daily tasks of planning for the classroom instruction, monitoring the progress of the students and, giving feedback. The third type Airasian (1996) referred to as official assessments which are the formal assessment functions that are periodic for grading, grouping, and reporting. In summary, teachers apply assessment methods in identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the students, for instruction planning to fit the needs that have been diagnosed, giving feedback, evaluating instructional activities, reporting on the progress, and monitoring the performance.

Test Technique

According to Fulcher (2010), assessment of writing skills based on the curriculum must start with curriculum inspection. Many curricula of writing are based on conceptual models that encompass purpose, process, and product. Therefore, the conceptual model forms the framework for the assessment techniques

Fultcher and Davison (2007) pointed out that diagnostic uses of the assessment that is determining the instructional needs of the students and the reasons for their writing problems are best met by examining the writing process. For instance, the strategies students use and the steps they go through as they work on their writing. Does the student have a strategy for organizing his or her ideas? How much planning is done by the student before writing? What are the possible obstacles of getting the thoughts to the paper? Does the student go through or related what they have written? How does the student attempt spelling words they do not know? Does the student share or talk with others as they write? What type of changes does the student make on his or her first written draft?

Hughes (2003) indicated that to make relevant instructional observations, the observer must use a conceptual model of how the process of writing should be done. The educators have not reached any consensus regarding the number of steps in the process of writing. Elbow (1981) proposed two steps while Frank (1979) proposed nine. On the other hand, Englert et al (1991) provided a five-step model for the process of wring using the acronym of POWER which stands for Plan, Organize, Write, Edit, and Revise. Additionally, each step has its own strategies and sub-steps that progressively become sophisticated as the students mature up in writing. Observation can also be used as a test technique in assessing the process of writing of the students as they progress through the writing steps.

According to Messick (1989), having the student assessing their own process of writing as a test technique is also advantageous for two reasons. The first advantage of self-assessment as a test technique is that it offers an opportunity for the students to observe and make a reflection on their approach, hence drawing attention to significant steps that they may have overlooked. The second advantage of self-assessment that follows a conceptual model like the POWER model is that it provides a means of internalizingan explicit strategy, and this allows the student to rehearse mentally on the steps of the strategy

Principles of Language Assessment

Content Validity

Validity is the extent to which the inferences gotten from the results of the assessments are meaningful, appropriate and useful in terms of assessment purpose (Gronlund, 1998, p.226). According to Hughes (2003) and Mousavi (2002), if a test samples the actual subject matter from which conclusions are to be drawn and also if the test requires the takers of the test to perform the measured behavior, then it can claim content validity. Nation (1993) asserted that an individual can usually identify content validity through observation if they can clearly define the achievement they are measuring. A test administered in written form and requires students to read a passage then write down their responses makes it high in content validity for a writing class

Brown (2010) stated that another way to understand content validity is by considering the difference between indirect and direct testing. In direct testing, the test taker actually performs the task targeted, while in indirect testing, the learners do not perform the task itself but instead perform a related task in some way. For instance, testing learners on oral production of the syllable stress and yet the tasks is having the learners mark the syllable stress with written accent marks in a list of the written words. Logically, the argument can be that the learners are indirectly tested on oral production of the stress syllables. However, the most feasible rule of achieving content validity is directly assessing performance

Construct Validity

Construct validity is a construct in a hypothesis, model, or theory attempting to explain phenomena observed in the people’s perceptions of the universe. Constructs may be or even may not be empirically or directly be measured since their verification often needs inferential data. Every issue virtually in the learning of language and teaching involves theoretical constructs. Brown (2010) observed that in the assessment field, construct validity asks whether the tests actually tap into the defined theoretical constructs. Davidson, Hudson and Lynch (1985) stated that in a manner of speaking, tests are operational constructs definition in that they operationalize the entity being measured.

For instance, suppose a teacher has a created a simply written vocabulary quiz, that covers the content of the recently completed unit. The test asks the students to define correctly a set of words, which are a perfectly adequate sample of everything that was covered in the entire unit. However, the unit’s lexical objective was the communicative use of the vocabularies. Therefore, certainly writing the definitions of the words fails to match the construct of communicative use of language.

Construct validity according to Brown (2010) is a major issue invalidation of the large-scale proficiency standardized tests. Since such test must adhere to the practicality principle, for economic reasons and also because they must sample limited areas of the language, these proficiency standardised tests may not be able to contain all of the content of a specific skill or field. For example, TOEFL has not attempted sampling oral production until recently, yet oral production is a significant part for success in academics in a course of study of a university. The omission of content oral production by TOEFL, however, has been justified ostensibly by research done by Duran et al (1985) that has indicated positive correlation between behaviours, writing, grammatical detection, reading and listening and oral production actually sampled from TOEFL. Because of the need of offering financially affordable proficiency tests and also of the high cost of scoring and administering tests on oral production, the omission of oral content from the proficiency TOEFL has been justified as a necessity economically.

Inter-Rater Reliability

According to Brown (2010), a reliable test is dependable and consistent. If you give the same examination to the student or even matched students on two occasions different, the examination should produce similar results. The matter of reliability of tests may be addressed best by making consideration to several factors that may contribute to a test’s unreliability. Mousavi (2002, p. 804) proposed the following possibilities: in scoring, fluctuations in the student, the test itself, and in test administration.

Student-Related reliability

According to Mousavi (2002, p. 804), the most common reliability issue that is related to learners is caused by fatigue, temporary illness, anxiety, bad day and other psychological and physical factors which make the “observed score” be deviated from the learners “true score.” Similar factors also included in the category include test-wiseness of the test takers or efficient test-taking strategies.

Rater Reliability

Bias, human error, and subjectivity may enter into the process of scoring. According to Mousavi (2002, p. 804), inter-rater reliability takes place when two or more scores produce inconsistent scores from the same test, possibly due to inexperience, lack of attention to the criteria of scoring, preconceived biases or even inattention.

The issues of rater reliability are not only limited to the context where two or more of the scores are involved. Mousavi (2002, p. 804) pointed out that intra-rater reliability is a very common occurrence for the classroom teachers due to the unclear criteria for scoring, bias towards particular bad and good students, fatigue, and even simple carelessness.

When a teacher or examiner is faced with many tests to grade in a very short period of time, however subliminally, the examiner knows the standards they will apply. The first few tests will be different from the last few tests. The examiner may be “harder” or “easier” on these first few papers or they may get tired, and the results, therefore, may be inconsistent across all the tests. Mousavi (2002, p. 804) suggested that the best solution to intra rater unreliability of the teachers is to read through approximately half of the tests before giving any final grades or scores, then recycle back again through the entire test for an even-handed judgment.

Brown (1991) indicated that in the tests for the skills in writing, rater reliability is specifically hard to achieve since proficiency in writing involves several traits that is also difficult to define. However, careful specification of the instrument for analytical scoring cab increases rater reliability

Test Administration Reliability

Mousavi (2002, p. 804) pointed out that unreliability may also come from the test administration conditions. For instance, an oral comprehension test administered through a tape recorder can be affected by street noise if the classroom is situated in a noisy environment, hence hindering accurate hearing by the students. Other unreliability sources are found from different amount of lighting in a classroom, variations in photocopying, the conditions of the chair and tests, and even variations in temperature

Test Reliability

The nature of the test itself sometimes can cause errors in measurement. If a test is too long, the takers of the test may be fatigued by the time they have reached the last items f the test and therefore incorrectly respond hastily. Similarly, Mousavi (2002, p. 804) asserted that tests that rare timed may discriminate against the students who do not perform at their best in tests that are timed. Additionally, test items that are poorly written for instance, they have more than one correct answer or even are ambiguous, may also be a further source of the unreliability of tests.

Practicality

According to Brown (2010), an effective test is a practical test. This implies that the test is not expensive excessively, is within the appropriate constraints of time, is easy to administer relatively, and finally has an evaluation/scoring procedure that is time-efficient and specific.

Brown (2010) indicated that a test that is prohibitively very expensive is very impractical. Similarly, a language proficiency test that takes five hours for the student to complete is also impractical since it consumes more money and time than necessary in accomplishing its objective. Furthermore, Brown (2010) stated that a test requiring individual one-on-one administration or proctoring is also impractical to a student group or hundreds of test-takers with only a few examiners. A test-taking a few minutes to take by the students but many hours for an examiner to do an evaluation is also impractical in a classroom situations. Similarly, a test that can only be scored by a computer is also impractical if the test is done miles away from a place with the nearest computer for scoring. The quality and value of a test sometimes hinge on these practical, nitty gritty considerations (Brown, 2010).

Test Specifications

Test specifications are the generative blueprints for the design of the test (Davidson and Lynch, 2002). Test specifications for use in classrooms can be a practical and simple outline of the tests, while the tests intended for large-scale distribution and use, the test specifications are much more detailed and formal

Models and formats

Davidson and Lynch Model

Davidson and Lynch (2002) stated that there is no single magic formula or best format for test specifications since there are many ways of designing one. They base their model on a model earlier developed by Popham (2008). Davidson and Lynch’s (2002) model has five components.

General description

This section of the test specification is the focus and object of the assessment indicating the skill and behavior to be tested. Also included in this section is usually the motivation or reason for testing and a statement of purpose.

Prompt Attributes

This is the second section of the model and it details what will be given to the taker of the test. The section includes information about test format, item selection, the actual item or form, and a detailed description of what the takers of the test will be asked to perform. Moreover, this section includes instructions and directions the test taker will read.

Response Attributes

This section details how the test taker will respond to the task or the item

Sample Item

The purpose of this section is to make the language of the general description, prompt attributes, and response attributes lively (Davidson and Lynch, 2002, p. 26).

Specification Supplements

The design of this section allows the specification to include as much information and detail as possible without making unwieldy the language of the general description, prompt attributes, and response attributes.

Alderson, Clapham and Wall Model

This test specification as recommended by Alderson et al (1995) should vary in content and format according to their audience according to the audience. Alderson et al (1995) propose various specification documents for test users, test validators, and test writers. In a test specification developed for writers, Alderson et al (1995) propose the inclusion of information on the following areas: General purpose statement, test focus, test battery, sources of texts, test tasks, item types and rubrics.

Similarly, Alderson et al (1995) recommended that specification documents for the validators of tests should include information on constructs that are assessed and the ability of language these constructs are based on. Specifications for test users probably should be written in the language of the lower level and include important information for the taker of the test. The authors recommended that specifications for the test users contain information like the test’s statement of purpose, complete tests, or sample items to review, and a description of the performance expected at key levels.

Bachman and Palmer Model

Their specification has two parts, test task specifications and the structure of the test. In the structure of the test part, Bachman and Palmer (1996) advise including information like several subtests, their relative importance, and order as well as the number of tasks/items per part. On the section of test task specifications, it has the following components: purpose, definition of the construct, setting, time allotment, instructions, input characteristics and the expected response and the scoring methods.

The Bachman and Palmer model has been choosing because of several reasons. First, its two component parts which make it inclusive and detailed compared to other models. Secondly, Bachman and Palmer model represents reorganization and relabeling of the Davidson and Lynch Model, hence an improvement to it. Therefore, the model has been chosen because of its advanced specification and inclusive nature.

Developing A Writing Test

Reverse engineering

There is a ready-made test (See Appendix 1) and therefor this section will simply detail its specification according to the format of Bachman & Palmer format. Reverse engineering according to Miller (2011) is the creation of specification document from a set of test items or test that already exists. Davidson and Lynch (2002, p. 41) stated that not all testing is specification driven. They further defined tests that are specific driven as those which have been created from a specification. Additionally, much of the investment at the setting of the test is in the creation, maintenance,, and evolution of the specs and also the tests themselves. In many institutions, testing programs and tests exists without usage of the test speculations that are formalized. In these scenarios, the developers rely on history and institutional memory in constructing their tests or even intuitions on what will create an effective test.

The reverse engineering process can be a useful one in situations when a school wants to move from a situation of non-spec driven testing to a spec driven situation (Davidson and Lynch, 2002, p. 43). Similarly, this process can help in clarifying whether a particular test is spec-driven, improve specifications, create a spec for tests, and even critique the specifications existing.

Test Specifications:

Bachman & Palmer’s format

The specifications of the test in appendix 1 will be done according to Bachman and Palmer’s format. The model adopted the five components of the Popham model but under different labeling.

Purpose

This is the statement of how the task/test item should be used. The purpose of the text is explicitly clear that it is a writing exam

Definition of construct

This is the detailed description of a particular language ability aspect being tested, or construct. This also includes inferences which can be made from the scores of the test that overlaps with the purpose of the test. In the test, the construct being defined is writing ability. The aspects of writing that will be tested include paragraph structure and length, content and cohesion, lexical range, grammar and mechanics, and sentence completeness

Setting

This is the listing of the characteristics for the setting where the test will be done, such as time of administration, participants, and physical location. The setting for the test is unclear since no physical location has been indicated, the participants and the time the test will start and end is also not indicated

Time allotment

This is the allowed amount of time for completing specific task or set of items on the test. The time allotment for the test is 50 minutes

Instructions

This is the listing of the language that should be used in the directions to takers of the test for that particular task/item. The instructions for the test to the test takers is for them to choose one of the given jobs (Businessman/businesswoman or a pilot), and then write a paragraph of at least 40 words describing the job and to say why they want or do not want to have the job in future.

Characteristics of the input and the response expected

This is the description of what will be presented to the takers of the test and what will be expected of them to do with it. The characteristics of the input in the test is to select one of the jobs and then write a paragraph of 40 word describing it.

The response expected is a detailed description of the selected job and the reasons why they want or even do not want to have it in the future in 40 words

Scoring methods

This is the description of how the response of the test taker will be evaluated (See Appendix 2) and also the results in Appendix 3. The scoring methods will include the following:

Paragraph structure and length- whether the paragraphs of the test taker consisted of a clearly organized topic sentence, is supported in the body and has a concluding sentence. Moreover, it is approximately 50 words
Content and cohesion- whether the content is relevant and is focussed showing full understanding of the topic with no digression. Moreover, the learner properly links his sentences with linking words
lexical range- the test taker used a wide range of relevant appropriate lexical items with no confusion
grammar and mechanics- whether the test taker accurately and effectively use grammatical mechanics and structures with minimal errors intense choice, spelling, subject-verb agreement, capitalizations and prepositions
sentence completeness- whether the test taker does not produce no incomplete or garmented sentences

Test Evaluation Methods

The principles of language assessment provide useful guidelines for both evaluation of the existing assessment procedures and also in designing one. Tests, quizzes and final exams can also be evaluated through the lenses of these principles.

Content Validity Evaluation

Content validity evaluation is the extent to which evaluation requires students to perform the tasks which were included in the previous lessons and which represent directly the unit’s objective on which the evaluation Is based. Brown (2010) proposed two steps for content validity evaluation of a classroom test.

Are the objectives of the classroom appropriately defined and formed?

The objectives of the unit, module or lesson are what underlies every good classroom hence identification of the objectives is the first measure of effective tests. In most instances, teachers work with poorly framed objectives or with little or no cognizant of the objectives they are seeking to fulfill that determining whether or not the objectives were fulfilled is impossible.

Are the objectives of the lesson represented in the form of test specifications

The concept of test specifications on the lesson objectives means that the test should be having a structure that logically follows from the unit of the lesson being tested. Several tests have the design which divides them into several sections perhaps, corresponding to the objectives under evaluation; offers variety of item types to the students; and provides appropriate weight to each section. (Brown, 2010).

Construct Validity Evaluation

Construct validity evaluation is the extent to which evaluation requires teachers to evaluate tasks based constructs underlying the unit, lesson or module. This evaluation can be empirically be measured from the inferential data from the evaluation scores of the students. The teacher should ask himself or herself whether the tests and the evaluation involves the defined theoretical constructs of the lessons (Brown, 2010).

Inter-Rater Reliability Evaluation

Rater reliability is an issue commonly overlooked since classroom tests in most instances do not involve two scorers. Brown (2010) asserted that inter-rater reliability is not an issue in most cases but intra-reliability is of constant concern. The teachers need to find mechanisms of maintaining their stamina and concentration over the time it takes in scoring assessments.

Practicality Evaluation

Practicality evaluation is determined by the students ‘and the teachers’ time constraints, administrative details, and costs, and also to some extent what occurs after and before the test. The practicality evaluation checklist suggested by Brown (2010) is listed below:

1. Are the administrative details instituted before the test?
2. Can the test takers complete the test within the reasonable time frame set?
3. Can the test be smoothly be administered with glitches in the procedures?
4. Are the equipment and material ready?
5. Is the test costs within the limits of the budget
6. Is the evaluation/scoring system feasible in the timeframe of the teacher?
7. Are the mechanisms of reporting the results laid down in advance? (Weir and Cyril, 2005).

Table 1: Results of the Students

N. Student Name Rater 1 Mark Rater 2 Mark
1 Alyaa Alzahrani 7 7
2 Amjaad Alotaibi 7 7
3 Asalah Almotairi 6 6
4 Batool Alhabeeb 9 9
5 Boshraa Almalki 6 5
6 Danya Alaydaros 6 6
7 Hind Almoaalm 9 9
8 Johara Alzahrani 10 10
9 Lama Alfarran 5 5
10 Lamees Blal 7 7
11 Maha ??? 4 4
12 Manal Hazazi 7 7
13 Mashaael Alsolami 9 9
14 Mezneh Alshaikhi 4 3
15 Momainah Barood 4 4
16 Norah Khalaf 7 7
17 Rawan Alamodi 8 8
18 Rawan Alghamdi 8 7
19 Rehab Alzahrani 6 6
20 Sanaa Mohammad 9 9
21 Sondos Zaini 7 7

One-Sample T: Rater 1 Mark

Variable N Mean StDev SE Mean 95% CI

Rater 1 Mark 21 6.905 1.758 0.384 (6.105, 7.705)

Figure 1

From the above graph we can see that the rater 1 mark is normally distributed with a mean of 6.905 and variance to be 1.758 we use here t statistic to test the results the bell curve shows that the average mark of rater 1 is round about 7 and the variation is 1.76 it means that on average each student is taking marks of variation 1.75 from the above graph we can say that the rater 1 mark is valid but the performance level of the students is below the average.

Figure 2

The graph shows the inter reliability of the rater 1 and rater 2 from this we can see that alyaa alzahrani mark remain same for rater 1 and rater 2 that is and she is below level next amjad alotabi he shows same results like alyaa alzharani most of the people are below the level from this we can see that there are no variation in the rater mark 1 and rater mark 2 so the test is reliable as it does not impact on the mark of students.

The grading system used for the class is in table 2 below and the graphical representation in figure 3:

Table 2: Grading system

A 100 to 90
B 89 – 80
C 79 – 70
D 69 – 60
F 59 – and less

Figure 3

Conclusion

In conclusion, a writing test developed on test specifications is valid, reliable, and practical. The developed test was valid, reliable, and practical. The test was content valid since it tested the writing content of the lessons, furthermore, it was based on the underlying theoretical constructs of the lessons hence making it construct valid. The test was also inter-rater reliable because of the minimal differences between the findings of the marker and the cross checker. Lastly, it was practical because the time allocated was enough, the number of students was adequate, and had enough number of examiners. The paper believes that the test was properly tested, was organized, marked properly hence making it content and construct valid, reliable and practical.

References

Airasian, P. W. (1996). Assessment in the classroom. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Alderson, J. C., Clapham, C., & Wall, D. (1995). Language test construction and evaluation. Cambridge [England: Cambridge University Press.

Bachman, L. & Palmer, A. (1996).  Language Testing in Practice. UK: Oxford University Press.

Brown, H. D. & Abeywickrama, P. (2010). Language assessment: Principles and classroom practices. New York: Pearson Education.

Davidson, F., & Lynch, B. K. (2002). Testcraft: A teacher’s guide to writing and using language test specifications. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Diane, T. (1990). ESL writing assessment: Subject-matter knowledge and its impact on performance. New York: Elsevier Ltd.

Douglas, D. (2010). Understanding language testing. UK: Hodder Education.

Elbow, P. (1981). Writing with power: Techniques for mastering the writing process. New York: Oxford University Press.

Englert, C. S., Raphael, T. E., Anderson, H. M. A. L. M., & Stevens, D. D. (January 01, 1991). Making Strategies and Self-Talk Visible: Writing Instruction in Regular and Special Education Classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 28, 2, 337-372.

Fulcher, G. (2010). Practical language testing. UK: Hodder Education.

Fultcher, G. and Davison, F. (2007). Language testing and assessment: an advanced resource book. New York: Routledge.

Goldberg, N. (1986). Writing down the Bones: Freeing the writer within. Shambhala Publications.

Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for language teachers (2nd Ed). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Messick, S. (1989). Validity. In R. L. Linn (Ed), Educational measurement, 13-103.

Miller, M.M. (2011) “The Spice of Writing: Extracurricular Projects for Technical Writers”. IPCC 92 Santa Fe. Crossing Frontiers. Conference Record. pp. 384–390.

Mousavi, A. (2002). Textbook trends in teaching language testing. Language Testing, 25, 3, 327-347.

Nation, P. (1993). Vocabulary size, growth, and use. The bilingual lexicon, 115-134.‏

Popham, W. J. (2008). Transformative assessment. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Weir, Cyril, J. (2005). Language testing and validation: an evidence-based approach. Macmillan: Palgrave.

Herman Bailey

With a student-centered approach, I create engaging and informative blog posts that tackle relevant topics for students. My content aims to equip students with the knowledge and tools they need to succeed academically and beyond.

Managing Finance: Key Strategies for Effective Financial Management

by Herman Bailey | Apr 19, 2023 | Essays | 0 comments

Introduction

As a new assistant financial director to Cheesecake Factory, Inc, a company that distributes cheesecakes, supplying cakes to retailers,, and operates restaurants in the city, I will write a financial report to the financial director. Our company buy cakes in the wholesale from the manufacturing company and supply it to coffee stores, restaurants, hotels and even to the travelers. The discussion in the paper will elaborate on the sources of finance to a business, the understanding of the implication of finance as a resource to business, make decisions from financial information,, and lastly evaluate the financial performance of the business.

People Also Read

• Strategies for Effective Business Activity Management
• The Critical Role of Product Positioning in Marketing Strategies
• Strategies for Effective Business Activity Management

TASK 1

LO1.1-financial resource/internal and external finance; short and long term finance

According to Williams et al (2009pp 167), the sources of finance for a business can be grouped according to their own sources. The sources of finance can either be from outside or within the business. That is either external or internal sources. The main sources of finance from within the business include the sources from the entrepreneur such as the personal debts, credit cards, cash balances,, and the investments by the entrepreneur (Adams 1977pp 44). Hatten et al (1997pp 109) also pointed out some of the internal sources of finance such as the profits retained in the business from the cash generated in the company after gaining profits in the business. The investor’s amount that has been invested in the business or the share capital is also essential in a sole proprietorship business.

Butler (2006pp198) observed that finance for a business from external sources include the long term or the short term loan capital. The loans can be gotten from banks and other financial institutions. The other external sources of finance include the outsides investors share capital to a business. The share capital can be gotten from the family and the friend’s entrepreneur.

The professional investors to a company referred to as the business angels also form part of the external sources of finance to a business. Venture capital can also be used for an already established business (Awe 2006pp56).

LO1.2 cost implications of the different sources of finance to a chosen business

Funding a business is of greater significance for it to operate well in the industry. However, Burton et al (2001pp276) found out that various financing sources to a business have different implications. The retained profits implications only apply to the operating businesses that are already established. Therefore, the retained profits do not apply to a new business.

According to Zimmerer et al (2008pp 79), if the entrepreneur has limited capital, the share capital may be limited. Furthermore, the entrepreneur’s investments in a business lose the investment to the company, and therefore, ceases to be the owner of the capital invested. The entrepreneur who has invested the capital in the sole proprietorship business can only benefit by receiving the dividends upon making of profits by the company, or when the company is entirely sold, the owner can get the total value of the company (Hillstrom et al 2002pp154).

Bates et al (2003pp 25) pointed out that the loan capital implications are the incurred interest rates that are high. The banks upon giving out loans to business entities always impose high-interest rates, and this eventually results in an increased companies cost of operation. Moreover, the financial institutions require collaterals for the loans to be given out. This impedes the business especially new companies which do not have any securities. According to Buera et al (2012pp 234), the loan capital is not also flexible to the new business as a finance source but can be used as an option to companies that are already established. The bank overdrafts despite their high rates of interest also assist in funding a business.

The funds contributed by the friends and the breast cancer. Ann has been a staunch Christian since childhood just like the rest of her family or the share capital towards a business are good for new businesses. However, tensions escalate amongst the quality of life. Arthur should be educated during the discussion with the doctor and also his family members and the friends, especially if they form part of management, or also shareholders. The venture capitalists and the business angels also act as a source of finance, but the proprietor losses part of the business control (Mancuso 1980pp 356).

LO1.3- Appropriate source of finance-positive and negative sides

The Cheesecake Factory, Inc supplies cakes to the restaurants, coffee stores, hotels,, and retailers in the outskirts of the city required a good amount of capital for its operation. The appropriate sources of capital that have been chosen include borrowing from friends and working environment. The worker needs proper shelter, transport, medical attention, and time for their family and personal savings. These are the internal sources of finance for the business.

To acquire the fixed assets for the company, the company will need long term loans to facilitate the acquisition. Moreover, credits of the short term will also be employed to help until the products will have been sold. Overdrafts from the will also be used.

If the merchant banks and the investment capitals offer to pump in their venture capital into the business, the option will be welcomed. This will enable the business to gain from the expertise and finance of the investors. Furthermore, the business will consider applying for the grants offered by the state and the central governments for its expansion.

Given that the business does not have many machineries and motor vehicles, the company will consider other financing sources such as getting expensive equipment through leases from the companies that lease their equipment. Moreover, the business will also incorporate trade credit by obtaining the raw material for the company and paying later after selling the goods.

TASK 2

LO2.1 Analyze the costs of different sources of finance

Various finance sources have different interest or costs. According to the National Executive of Small Business Agencies (Australia) et al (2005pp14), the type of finance that a business adopts depends on the nature and type of business. Savings as a financing source for a business is good for a business cost-wise. Savings incurred no interest rates because the cash belongs to the entrepreneur. Similarly, obtaining funds from the families and friends is important in financing a new business because of of friends and family member’s loans the entrepreneur cash interest-free in most cases.

Confederation of British Industry (1974pp 25), however, observed that loans obtained from the banks and other financial institutions always have higher rates of interest on the capital loaned. This raises their costs. Similarly, bank overdrafts also possess high rates of interest and they are important in cash flow management. This raises their costs and interest when compared to other finance sources for funding a business.

Use of the creditors in a business offers a low cost. This is where a business agrees with the suppliers to take credits from the suppliers for a short term, and will pay back after making sales. This method offers low cost because the business can sell more goods than when it had goods acquired only through purchasing by the limited funds (Bodie et al 2000pp79).

Use of the guardian angels, grants and venture capital also offers minimal financing cost to the business. This is because they make investments in the business and helps it to expand without including any high rates of interest. They expand the business making it get more profits. Application of the credit cards as a source of finance enhances the quickness of getting cash but it has a high cost during the transaction process (Williams et al 2009pp 187).

LO2.2 Explain the importance of financial planning of the business organization you have chosen

It is of great importance to make financial planning to the business of supplying cakes to the hotels, restaurants, coffee stores,, and the neighborhoods of the city suburbs. The first importance of financial case study in Los Angeles. Los Angeles: School of Architecture and Urban       planning is to assist inthe efficient management of the income. Adams (1977pp 324) observed that the making of budgets to the expenditure and the income is the most efficient way of income management.

Financial service delivery and policy making. The experience, capabilities and thinking of makers of policy, and those individuals who have liability for planning also helps in increasing the flow of cash and spending habits. Planning of the finance helps in determining the things that need to be attended for cash to be generated and investment to be made (Hatten et al 1997pp98).

Furthermore, for the long term capital base of a business to be built and to make a shape to the business financial future, financial planning is needed (Butler 2006pp 160). Awe (2006pp270) noted that financial planning assists in the identification of the investment opportunities that are relevant to the situation of the business. This will enable the change of the goals of the company to the desired realities from the business dreams.

According to Burton et al (2001pp28), planning of the finance also helps in the understanding the finance by making the entrepreneur budget for the business and gaining over control of the financial lifestyle of the business. Moreover, financial planning helps in saving which can assist the business by proving the emergency fund for the business during the hour of need.

Financial planning according to Zimmerer et al (2008pp303) helps the business of supplying cakes to the restaurants, hotels,, and other retail shops in liabilities cancellation and insuring assets accumulation to maximize the wealth of the company. Lastly, it assists the proprietor to realize the main objective of mastery and security of the finance. This is because the planning of finance gives meanings and directions to the financial decisions of the entrepreneur.

LO2.3- Assess the information needs of different decision-makers in your chosen business

The business of supplying cakes to the restaurants, hotels, retail shops,, and the clientele in the city outskirts will be managed by many managers who are the decision-makers of the business. Moreover, the business has employed many workers who assist in running, and they are also free to make decisions when there is a need or in cases of emergency. This has created flexibility in management and decision making.

However, in situations where an investment specialist or a guardian angel intends to make an investment in the business and expand it, they will be entitled to right of making decisions that are important to the business.

According to Hillstrom et al (2002), it is very important to make decisions in a business. Therefore, for a good decision to be made, possessing some experience and having good information in information interpretation is important to the entrepreneur, the investors,, and the employees. The workers consult their supervisors and managers in most cases. The general manager; however, seeks expertise and professional views.

The workers of the business in the positions of the management have been given proper training on decision-making mechanisms. The business also has made an environment that is supportive where the management or the worker’s body are not be unfairly criticized in case they make wrong decisions. It is always expected that the managers make tactical decisions, and the workers to decide on their conduct, response to the customers,, and the improvement of the business practice (Bates et al 2003pp68).

LO2.4 Explain the impact on the financial statement of your chosen business

For reporting the financial statements, events of the business are categorized into three types; investing, financial events,, and operating (Buera et al 2012pp 296). Investing in the funds on the business assets assists in running the business operations.

According to Mancuso (1980pp35),, the business creditors and the owners may periodically need to know the business financial information to help in the management and decision making. The creditors need the business financial information to evaluate the ‘sbusiness’s ability to repay the loan.

The income statement of a business reports the expenses and the revenue of the business that took place during the reporting on the financial period. The balance sheet, on the other hand, reports on the business assets, the owner’s equity,, and the company’s liability. The report on the cash flow statement shows the inflows and the outflows of the funds from the financing and investing events of the reporting financial period (Bodie et al 2000pp79).

National Executive of Small Business Agencies (Australia) et al (1995pp12) pointed out that the financial statements of a business portray a reflection of the business economic events. When the company makes asset investments like the inventory or the equipment, payments will be done on the purchase. However, if the cash was used in buying the assets, the report will be made in the balance sheet.

TASK 3

LO3.1 Analyze budgets and make appropriate decisions

For the past six months Cheesecake Factory, Inc has made big sales in the financial period that will end on December 31st,, 2015. In the profits and loss account, the sales are shown to be £35,880. The sales costs on the products is £18, 875 giving Cheesecake Factory, Inc £16,952 as its gross profit. Form the financial statements; the company obtains most of its profits from the sales. This positions it in a good area of increasing its income. The gross profits can be further be increased if the cost of sales is reduced. This is because of the cost of sales which is high and derails the company’s profits that the company could have gained.

Moreover, the business can gain extra profits from the disposal of some of its equipment it does not need. This can be realized by employing a mechanism that is efficient and advanced technologically in its operations. Confederation of British Industry (1974pp32) pointed out that this will eventually reduce the company’s cost of sales to maximize its profits from the disposal of the equipment.

The expenses of the Cheesecake Factory, Inc can be reduced by reducing the administrative costs and reducing also the improve its customer service to its clients. The associates or the employees of the company that is redundant, to remain with a small group of employees that are efficient and does most duties. The high cost of the distribution for the company can be reduced by removing the middlemen in the distribution channel. Furthermore, Williams et al (2009pp221) noted that it is important for the company to directly deal with their clients to help them improve and get their customer’s feedback.

Cheesecake Factory, Inc operates on high-interest loans, which further increases their expenses. The company should apply cheap ways of reducing their expenses such as equipment leasing and obtaining credits from their suppliers and making payments upon making of the sales of their goods.

LO3.2 Explain the calculation of unit costs and make pricing decisions

According to Adams (1977pp79), the cost a business incurs in the production, storage,, and selling of one of its products is the unit cost. The unit costs include fixed costs such as the plant and the variable costs like the involved labor in the production. In making the calculation of the variable costs, the incurred fixed and variable costs in the production process are divided by the produced unit’s number.

For instance, the Cheesecake Factory, Inc is expected to make, and supply cakes and make sales for six months of 650,036 cheesecakes and cakes. The selling price of the goods is expected to be reduced from the current £55.12 per unit by 10%. This will result in a new selling price of £49.61 per unit. This will be expected ultimately to make the sales increase by 20%. Furthermore, the cost of sales will rise by 20% with the other remaining costs being constant.

The reduction on the unit cost by 10% ultimately leads to profits increase. In price decision making, the selling costs of the products should also be reduced to get a competitive edge in the industry and increase their profits (Hatten et al 1997pp70).

From the profit and loss budget, the various costs are (amounts in € 000)

Fixed costs (amount in € 000)

Loan interest: 500

Corporation tax; 2299

Administration costs; 3075

Variable costs

Costs of sales; 18878

Total costs = 24752

At the initial price point the price per unit cost =

Hence from the initial 55.12- 38.08 = 17.04 was the profit per unit

However with the new projections

Projected sales 120% of 35880 = 43056

Projected reduction to 90% 0f 55.12 = 49.6 per unit

The projected cost of sales 22654

Total costs will be

Fixed costs

Loan interest: 500

Corporation tax; 2299

Administration costs; 3075

Variable costs

Cost of sales; 22654

Total costs 28528

Total costs/ total output = unit per cost

28528/650.036= 43.9

Whereas the projected prices will be 49.6

The company will make a profit per unit of 49.6-43.9 = 3

LO3.3 Assess the viability of a project using at least two investment appraisal techniques

In measuring the impact of the investment on the accounting profits, the AAR is used. Admittedly, the method is used as the main factor in the determination of the worth of an investment in which the level of profitability may be achieved.

ARR = average profit after depreciation/ average of capital investment ×100

Average capital of investment = (

From the business (amount in 000) initial outlay = 8000

Year 1 2000

Year 2 2800

Year 3 3200

Year 4 1200

Year 5 800

Year 6 500

Residual value = 400

ARR = average profit over 6 years = (2000+2800+3200+1200+800+500) = = 1750

Average capital investment = initial investment + residual outlay/2

=

Hence ARR = × 100 = 41.67%

Net present value

Year cash flow discounting present value10% present value 15%

10% 15%

1 1333.33 0.909 0.870 1212 1160

2 1333.33 0.826 0.756 1101 1008

3 1333.33 0.751 0.658 1001 877

4 1333.33 0.683 0.572 911 763

5 1333.33 0.621 0.497 828 663

6 1333.33 0.564 0.432 752 576

Total present value 5805 5047

Initial investment =- 8000 + 5805 = (2195)

Initial investment = -8000 + 5047 = (2953)

Both investments are yielding a negative value hence the investment should not be undertaken

Cheesecake Factory, Inc cannot sustain the project given that the estimated cost of capital of £8,000 is far more beyond the reality in year one. Moreover, the subsequent years portrays a reduction in capital costs as the company gets itself established in the market. This could be because of market competition, fixed goods that do not move easily,, or product irrelevancy. Furthermore, the plans of the company to give up to 15% discount with the gloomy cost of capital and sales.

TASK 4

LO4.1 Discuss the main financial statements (the discussion should focus on the basic form and purpose of main financial statements)

According to Butler (2006pp90), there exist three types of financial statements; the cash flow, balance sheet,, and the income statement. The income statement outlines all the expense and income of of business items. Moreover, it also portrays a reflection of the particular time period. The income statement as observed by Awe (2006pp158) is also known as a profit and loss account. The less expense in income is the bottom line in the sheet of profit and loss account. If the income is more than the expense, the business realizes a net profit. However, in a situation where the expense exceeds the income, the business realizes a loss.

Burton et al (2001pp120) noted that the balance sheet shows the business health from the first day of the writing of the balance sheet. It always reports on the late date of the reporting period.

The cash flow statements of a business show the business ins and outs of the cash during the reporting period. It incorporates the balance sheet aspects and income statement and compounds them together to portray the cash sources and their uses for the period of reporting.

LO4.2 Compare appropriate formats of financial statements for different types of business

According to Zimmerer et al (2008pp402), there exist various formats of financial statements. Despite the differences in the formats applied, the results will always be the same. There is no permanently prescribed format in the preparation of the income statement. Therefore, the business should choose the format it wishes to make a presentation of its expenses by either nature or function. This can either be encouraged on the face of the income statement or in the notes.

Hillstrom et al (2002pp189) observed that there are standards of accounting like the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) whose practices are universally accepted worldwide.

Different types of businesses use various formats of financial statements. For instance, a sole proprietor would choose to apply a simple profit and loss account. However, a big company like the public limited company may apply the financial statements based on the GAAP or IFRS. Bates et al (2003pp46) observed that when preparing the financial statements and disregarding the standards, it becomes a great problem when comparing with the other organizations. Some businesses prepare single format income statements where expenses are classified to function and deduction made finally from the overall income to give an income of the business before taxation is made.

The multi-step format is where the cost of sales is subtracted from the sales to show the gross profit. Moreover, other expenses and income are presented to show the business income taxation. Buera et al (2012) observed that the difference between the two formats are that the multi-step shows margin by grouping the indirect and direct cost while the single step does not.

In a balance sheet of a company, some business types do the matching of the liability and equity. The liabilities and the equities represent the amount invested and the borrowing of the lenders and the creditors.

LO4.3 Interpret financial statements using appropriate ratios and comparisons, both internal and external using the data given below

The Gross margin of WM Morrison supermarkets showed a decline from 6.97% to 6.89 % in the year 2010 to 2011. This has also been replicated in J Sainsbury PLC. This shows good business performance in both companies (Mancuso 1980pp76)

The turnover of WM Morrison increased over the years. This is similar to the turnover of J Sainsbury PLC for the financial years. Furthermore, The percentage of the returned to the shareholders was quite high in WM Morrison supermarkets in both years compared to the other company although both recorded a high percentage of returns to the shareholders.

As much both companies registering high return on the capital invested, the percentage return of capital invested in WM Morrison supermarkets was high. This shows a large volume of sale as observed by (Bodie et al 2002pp98)

Similarly, both companies showed a decline in stock turnover in the two consecutive years with J Sainsbury PLC performing well in stock turnover. This is an indication of the good use of their raw materials.

Conclusion

In summary, the very integral and key part of the business when it is being set up is finance. Getting to understand the financing of business importance is good for smooth business operations. There are many finance sources for a business, however, their implications must be considered before using any source of finance. Moreover, planning of the finance and the information is significant and should be followed by the entrepreneur for smooth business operations. The information needs of the business decision-makers are important in a business. Moreover, the financial impact on different financial statements should be considered in a business.

Reference List

Adams, C. R. (1977) Appraising the information needs of decision-makers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Awe, S. C. (2006) The entrepreneur’s information sourcebook: charting the path to small business success. Westport, Conn: Libraries Unlimited.

Bates, M. E., & Basch, R. (2003) Building & running a successful research business: a guide for the independent information professional. Medford, N.J: CyberAge Books.

Bodie, Z., & Merton, R. C. (2000) Finance. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Buera, F. J., & Moll, B. (2012) Aggregate implications of a credit crunch. Cambridge: Mass, National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from http://papers.nber.org/papers/w17775.

Burton, E. J., Bragg, S. M., & Burton, E. J. (2001) Accounting and finance for your small business. New York: Wiley.

Butler, D. (2006) Enterprise planning and development small business start-up, survival,, and development. Amsterdam, Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780750680646.

Confederation of British Industry. (1974) Sources of finance for industry and commerce; characteristics, advantages,, and disadvantages of the main forms and sources. London: Confederation of British Industry

Hatten, T. S., & Coulter, M. K. (1997) Small Business: entrepreneurship and beyond. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice-Hall.

Hillstrom, K., & Hillstrom, L. C. (2002) Encyclopedia of small business. Detroit: MI, Gale Group.

Mancuso, J. (1980) The small business survival guide: sources of help for entrepreneurs. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall.

National Executive of Small Business Agencies (Australia), & National Industry Extension Service (Australia). (1995) Sources of finance for small businesses. Canberra, A.G.P.S.

Williams, T. M., Samset, K., & SunnevåG, K. J. (2009) Making essential choices with scant information: front-end decision making in major projects. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Zimmerer, T., Scarborough, N. M., & Wilson, D. (2008) Essentials of entrepreneurship and small business management. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Herman Bailey

With a student-centered approach, I create engaging and informative blog posts that tackle relevant topics for students. My content aims to equip students with the knowledge and tools they need to succeed academically and beyond.

American Cuisine Culture and Traditions From the World

by Herman Bailey | Apr 18, 2023 | Essays | 0 comments

Culture is defined as the beliefs, customs, knowledge, and habits a set of people share (Smith, 15). These are learned and not inherited behaviors. Culture is transferred from families to families down the lines. Each tribal group has its specific culturally cuisines and food habits (Para 5). According to Terry, a cuisine is a particular set of cooking practices and traditions, often related with a definite culture (4). Each cuisine encompasses food preparation in a specific style, of drink and food of particular types, to produce exclusively expended items or individual meals. A cuisine is normally named after the place or region where it was invented (Para 3). American cuisine has been inclined by Native Americans and Europeans in its early history. When compared to the northern settlements, the southern settlements were quite assorted in their agricultural diet and neither did they have a central expanse of culture.

People Also Read

• Top 100 American Revolution Essay Topics
• Differences In Business Etiquette And Negotiation Techniques In Europe And China
• Five Strategies For Nurses To Influence Votes

In the 19th and 18th centuries, Americans came up with many new foods for instance; the Progressive Era (1890–1920) food presentation and production became more developed (Smith, 26). One trait of American cooking is the combination of multiple tribal or regional methodologies into entirely new cooking styles. During the 1980s, famous restaurants introduced method of combining cuisines that comprised of American styles of cookery with foreign essentials, universally referred as New American cuisine (Terry, 28).

The modern cuisine of the United States in the 21st century is mostly regional in nature.in other words, the foods of ordinary culture have been affected by the presence of these distinct cultures hence; the American food is a blend of many cuisines and cultures. In order to understand it, one must not only study the native foods and food habits of the many marginal sets, but also the relations between the mainstream culture and the way of life of these minor groups (Smith ,35).

Today, several foods are commonly considered as American, these are hamburgers, potato chips, hot-dogs, macaroni and cheese and meat loaf. There are also methods of cooking and forms of foods that are unique to a region. Southern-style cooking is called American comfort food and comprises of foods such as fried chicken. Tex-Mex, distinct in the Southwest and Texas, is a mix of Mexican and Spanish cooking cuisines and includes foods such as chili and burritos and depends heavily on frayed cheese and beans (Para,5). Majority American culinary methods are same to those in Western nations. Corn and wheat are the prime cereal grains. Traditional American cooking uses items such as turkey and indigenous foods used by American Indians and early European colonists. Italian-American cuisine often finally appears; in the form of Vietnamese cuisine, Thai cuisine, and Korean cuisine. German cuisine has a major impact on American cuisine, most especially mid-western cooking, with potatoes, roasts, noodles, stews and pastries being the most popular ingredients in both cuisines (Smith, 46).

The state of Louisiana, for instance, is known for its Creole and Cajun cooking. Cajun and Creole cooking are affected by French, Haitian and Acadian cooking, although the foods themselves are unique and original (Para, 7). Soul food, established by African slaves during the colonial period, is widespread around the South and among African Americans. Americans commonly prefer coffee to tea, with approximately half the adult population drinking at least a cup a day.

New England, also a cuisine in America is marked for having a major stress on seafood, a heritage inherited from coastal tribal groups like the Narragansett and Wampanoag, who similarly used the abundant fishing banks offshore for survival (Terry, 49). Meat is present though not as common, and is stewed in dishes. The Hawaiian and pacific cuisine is often considered to be one of the most culturally varied in the U.S. states, and also being the only state with an Asian mainstream population (4). resulting to the Hawaiian cuisine borrowing ingredients of a variety of cuisines, mainly those of Pacific-rim  and Asian cultures, as well as  native Hawaiian and a few adds from the Americans .Midwest Midwestern cuisine  in America, includes everything from barbecue to the hot dog Chicago-style. African impacts came with slaves from West Africa (Smith, 67). Foods such as eggplant, chili pepper and many varied kinds of melons were carried with them from along with the incredibly significant starter of rice to the Carolinas and later to Louisiana and Texas where it became main grain of the region and till today (Para, 6).

Traditionally around the world. Italian Meal of the Seven Fishes, which originated from Southern Italy, has the Italian-American families celebrating the custom with multicourse seafood feasts of baccal, calamari and chockfull of seven kinds of fish (Morgan, 22). French reveillon is In French speaking countries. The feasts deep into the night and comprises of lobster, escargots, foie gras or oysters. Peruvian Noche Buena is found In Spain, the Philippines and Latin America. Peruvians decide on roast pig or turkey with a range of side foods like rice, fresh salads and apple sauce (Para 3). In the UK, Boxing Day, occasionally a day for awarding workers with presents, is celebrated after Christmas with a simple curry centric buffet mainly made from leftovers (Morgan, 35). German dinner goes down with roasted goose with potatoes, vegetables and confections like fruitcake. Irish dinner is similar to holiday feasts of the Americans; roasted poultry, potatoes, ham, and pudding are main meals.

Works Cited

Andrew F Smith. Eating history: 30 turning points in the making of American cuisine. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009. Print.

Bryant Terry. Vegan Soul kitchen: fresh, healthy, and creative African American cuisine. Massachusetts: Da Capo Press, 2009. Print.

James L Morgan. Culinary creation: an introduction to foodservice and world cuisine .Boston: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006. Print.

Herman Bailey

With a student-centered approach, I create engaging and informative blog posts that tackle relevant topics for students. My content aims to equip students with the knowledge and tools they need to succeed academically and beyond.

Significance of The Triumph of Immaculate & Washington Crossing the Delaware

by Herman Bailey | Apr 18, 2023 | Essays | 0 comments

The two pieces of art I choose for my paper are The Triumph of Immaculate by De Paulo Matteis (De, 2015) and Washington Crossing the Delaware, a painting by Emmanuel Leutze (Leutze,1851). The link to the Triumph of Immaculate painting is https://www.thinglink.com/scene/571727979533565952 while that of Washing crossing the Delaware is http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/11417 or can be found by visiting the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Both paintings are significant in the western history as they serve as a reminder of historical events that shaped the western nation politically and religiously. Washington Crossing the Delaware honors the crossing of the Delaware River by General George Washington in December 1776 during the American Revolutionary War while the Triumph of Immaculate signifies the religious battles between Catholics and Protestants.

People Also Read

• Top 100 American Revolution Essay Topics
• Kao Kalia Yang’s identity as an American

The styles engaged in the paintings were influenced by the periods they were painted in historical events and cultural aspects and relied on the exact events captured in the paintings. The Triumph of Immaculate is an imaginative piece that captures the religious divide. Washington crossing the Delaware captures a real event that took place in the American history. The Triumph of Immaculate adopts the baroque style which is an artistic style composed of embellished motions and quickly interpreted features to generate tension, drama, grandeur and exuberance in sculpture, architecture, painting, literature, theater, dance and music. The style emanated in Rome in 1600 and was encouraged by the Conservative Catholic church spreading across Europe.

Washington Crossing the Delaware represents a style popular among the neo-classists with gesture and subject matter of the Romantics. It highlights artistic features of its style movement by use of suspect textures and colors, and drawings exhibiting substantial concentration and stress on the composition. In the Triumph of Immaculate, themes characteristic of conservatism and status quo are evident while in Washington crossing Delaware, rebellion and heroism feature are more apparent with the thematic composition of mutiny against aristocracy.

Figure 1(De,Matteis)

The painting by Paolo De Mtteis is referred to as The Triumph of the Immaculate from the Baroque art movement. The masterpiece was painted in Italy around 1710 and can be found in Gemaldegalerie-Berlin as indicated by Pestilli (13).

Figure 2 (Leutze, Emmanuel)

The painting is a masterpiece by Emanuel Leutze referred to as Washington Crossing the Delaware. It is a realistic painting painted in 1851 and can currently be found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art but was originally painted and exhibited in Germany as stated by Wierich (20).

INTRODUCTION.

Works of art play a significant role, for entertainment, educational, a reflection of the society’s moral values, political significance, Religious significance, and problems to the society is faced with. There exist a number of good painters since time memorial. Paolo De Mattei is an Italian painter famous for his painting, The Triumph of the Immaculate. The piece is a narrative detail, it is a full story presented as a painting. The painting is of the baroque era, with their visceral images and easy to understand. The painting is dramatic in that it captures the events and narrative of the ascent to the highest order of existence of well put together beings in drab colors. The images are covered in shadows cast by the brilliant white light from the clouds. The piece was painted in Italy around 1710 and is available in the Gemaldegalerie, Berlin. Another painter famous for his art is Emmanuel Leutze, who is well known for the painting Washington Crossing the Delaware. In contrast with Matteis dramatic painting, Leutze painting is realistic. The painting was originally painted and exhibited in Germany. This paper shall discuss the importance of these paintings, the significance they played in the different style movements, the similarity, and the difference and shall also include a personal reflection on the impact of these paintings in today’s society

The two paintings are significant in the western history as they serve as a reminder of historical events that shaped the western nation politically and religiously. Washington Crossing the Delaware honors the crossing of the Delaware River by General George Washington in December 1776 during the American Revolutionary War. The painting leaves a great mark in the American history as it indicates an unexpected courageous move by Washington and his dedication to the war that contributed to the American victory (Barratt 201). Similarly, the Triumph of the Immaculate signifies the period in the history of the religious divide. The Catholics used art as a weapon against their counterparts, protestants, to show the strength of God’s power, encourage monarchy and strengthen the Catholic Church as reflected in the painting since the paintings shows victory by God’s power as described by Pestilli (2013).

The two paintings show different style movements and come from different time periods. However, the styles employed in the paintings were influenced by the periods they were painted in historical events and cultural aspects and relied on the exact events captured in the paintings. For instance, De & Frick Art Reference Library says that Paolo de Matteis work was purely imaginative of a religious war motivated by the desire to contribute to the historical religious fight while Emanuel captured a real event in the American history that was his motivation factor (Barratt 200). Therefore, the two paintings serve as a reminder of events that occurred during those periods.

The two paintings give a glimpse into the old style and if possible make comparisons with the twenty first century contemporary style to get an idea of the development of art over the years The paintings illustrate the historical events that shaped the current political, cultural and religious aspects of western nations, as well as the necessity to preserve national heritage as implied by Wierich, J. (2012). For instance, The Triumph of the Immaculate gives an insight into the remarkable religiously divided that contributed to the establishment of various churches.

The Triumph of the Immaculate is an artistic work created by Paolo De Matteis. The style period of this painting is Baroque. In Baroque, the artistic style composed of embellished motions and quickly interpreted features to generate tension, drama, grandeur and exuberance in sculpture, architecture, painting, literature, theater, dance and music. The style emanated in Rome in 1600 and was encouraged by the Conservative Catholic church spreading across Europe. The triumph of the Immaculate is in oil and canvas that is in medium size painting (D’Ancona 30). Washington crossing the Delaware is an artistic work, by Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze, a German-American artist. It was painted in 1851, and, in fact, the 149 in x 255 in painting is located in The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The drawing venerates George Washington crossing the Delaware River in the eve of December 25th in 1776 during the American Revolution War. The painting style represents among the most popular neo-classists with gesture and subject matter of the Romantics (Wierich 6). The Washington Crossing Delaware highlights artistic features of its style movement by use of suspect textures and colors, and drawings exhibiting substantial concentration and stress on the composition. The current Leutze’s painting of Washington Crossing Delaware was a repaint done in the 19th century in the Düsseldorf school as the original was damaged by British Air Raids in Germany with the painting being is a reflection of the Düsseldorf Neo-classist’s style movement at the time. General Washington is highlighted by an unnaturally glowing sky, as his visage catches the rising sun. The colors are composed of mostly murky tones, as expected at sunup, but there are scarlet highlights recurring throughout the work of art. Foreshortening, angle and the far-away boats all provide depth to the work of art and stress Washington’s boat (Groseclose 67). Encourage by the conservative Catholic Church, the painting highlights themes held centrally by the movement such as divinity. They convened at Council of Trent held that art should relay religious subjects in both emotional and direct involvement. The aristocracy witnessed the use of Baroque architectural style and art used as a means of unusual visitors and expressing power, control, and triumph. In the painting, the primary attention is on Jesus, and he is easily spotted. Baroque makes the main character the most dominant in its art and architecture. Other symbolic paintings include God, who is shown in the lighter glow and the Pope, who is portrayed as small and insignificant (D’Ancona 95). One striking similarity between Washington Crossing Delaware and The Triumph of Immaculate is the centrality placed by the painters of the main character. In the former this is on General Washington while in the latter, on Jesus Christ. Another similarity between the two is grandeur and sensuality. The paintings also present strong emotional themes. The significant differences evident between the two paintings are a consequence of the reigning theme sin the two historical movements (Thinklink 19). The Triumph of Immaculate sought to impress and was thus placed at the entrance of courts, guest rooms and grand staircases (D’Ancona 57). On the other hand, Washington crossing Delaware, a neoclassic painting has many aspects of restriction because the movement relied on art that accentuated form and portion and use of precise lines. Since Washington Crossing Delaware also has Romantics art embedded on it, there is a heavy influence of revolt against the aristocracy of the 18th century with heroic portrays (i.e., General Washington). The Baroque painting also differed from the neoclassical in that it emphasized the ‘ideal’ or the natural order. Finally, the two changing themes in the paintings are important when clearly understood with knowledge of the reigning movements. In the Triumph of Immaculate, themes characteristic of conservatism and status quo are evident (against rising Protestant Reform) while in Washington crossing Delaware, rebellion and heroism feature are more apparent with the thematic composition of mutiny against aristocracy (Wierich 32).

CONCLUSION

The Triumph of the Immaculate by Mattei and Washington Crossing the Delaware by Leutze are significant pieces of art in religious, political, cultural and American history. Matteis for example, explains the struggles and religious war between Catholics and protestant that has resulted in the many churches today. Leutze piece on the other hand,displays the struggles that the American people and the devotion they had that is reflected through General Washington which consequently led to their victory in the American Revolution War. They are also significant in the development of art throughout the years. Mattei’s painting captures the Baroques dramatic purpose and is very detailed. It also eludes exaggeration and emotional. The paintings also show a number of similarities from the way the images are centrally placed in each picture, the emotions they elude to the audience and the sensuality. The two paintings are not only significant to the world of arts but also to the different aspects of society such as religion and politics.

Works Cited.

Barratt, Carrie. Washington Crossing the Delaware: Restoring an American masterpiece. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art,2011.

De, Matteis. Paolo De Matteis: Artist File.1920. Frick Art Reference Library

D’Ancona, Mirella Levi. The Iconography of the Immaculate Conception, in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Art Association of America in conjunction with the Art bulletin, 1957, Vol. 7.

De, Paolo. Triumph of Immaculate.2015.ThinkLink.

Groseclose, Barbara S. Washington Crossing the Delaware: The Political Context. American Art Journal (1975): 70-78.

Leutze,Emmanuel. Leutze Emmanuel:Artist File.1851.The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York City.

Pestilli, Livio. Paolo de Matteis: Neapolitan Painting and Cultural History in Baroque Europe.2013.

Wierich, James. Grand themes: Emanuel Leutze, Washington crossing the Delaware, and American history painting. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2012.

Herman Bailey

With a student-centered approach, I create engaging and informative blog posts that tackle relevant topics for students. My content aims to equip students with the knowledge and tools they need to succeed academically and beyond.