by Herman Bailey | May 29, 2023 | Essays |
Discuss Professional Power With Reference To the Social Construct of Deviance
Michel Foucault’s Concepts
Power
The concept of pastoral power was developed by Michel Foucault in order to comprehend the significance of individual governance and collective governance. Foucault defines pastoral power as a technique of old power feature in the institutions of Christianity (Foucault, 2000, p. 783). Foucault explains pastoral power as a mode of power that plays significant roles of improving, sustaining, and ensuring the well-being of everyone’s lives (Foucault, 2007, p. 141). In expanding on his perspective on this concept, Foucault undertakes to study two technique of pastoral power, which include individualizing and totalizing (Foucault, 2013, p 104). To illustrate how pastoral power works, Foucault gives an example of a shepherd and the flock. He says that a pastoral power involves individualizing through essential paradox granting like the value accrued to an entire flock by a single sheep (Foucault, 2007, p. 187).
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Foucault argues that pastoral power ensures that people are saved in the current world, rather than in the next world (Foucault, 2000, p. 785). Moreover, he suggests that the salvation of humanity is one of the main goals of the Western society. The term “salvation” in this case can be used to refer to well being, health, protections against accidents, and security (Foucault, 2013). Maurizio Lazzarato in explaining the concept of pastoral power discusses how the government is demolishing the relationship between public life space and private life (O’Farrell, 2005).
An example of pastoral power within the professional experience can be seen in the health care sector. Healthcare providers are concerned with the restoration of the health of their patients, as well as the provision of quality healthcare services to the general patient populations (Biebricher, 2011). Thus, pastoral power describes power relations between leaders and the individuals and the entities they govern. The implications of this concept as explained by Foucault reveals that power is a system that is practiced from points of innumerability through mobile relations and interplay of non-egalitarianism, rather than something that an individual can hold on, or allow to pass away. He indicates that power can neither be shared, seized nor acquired (Foucault, 1978, p. 94). The concept presents a challenge as illustrated by Foucault in that it is not applicable in political systems led by authoritarian regimes. It can therefore be argued that pastoral power is a feature of modern democratic states.
Application
Foucault’s concept of pastoral power is applicable in the education system in various ways. To begin with, the education system is considered as an agent of pastoral power (Masschelein, 2004). This is because the system promises salvation by improving the lives of individual students and promoting the wellbeing of the entire student population. School rules are there to give direction to both individual students and all the students (Dreyfus & Rabinow, 2000). Every student is required to adhere to these regulations in order to be on the safe side. The same case applies to all students. In the same way, the Code of Ethics for Educators targets both individual teachers and all teachers (Golder, 2007). Every teacher is required to comply with this code. All teachers as well are required to abide by the principles of this code. These examples demonstrate the individualizing and totalizing nature of pastoral power as described by Foucault.
Discipline
The concept of discipline was developed by Foucault in order to comprehend the productivity of power. Foucault defines discipline as “methods that made meticulous control possible for the body operations, which assured a subjection constant of its forces and also imposed upon them a relation of docility-utility” (Foucault, 1979, p. 137). Foucault explains discipline as mechanism of power whose function is to regulate the behaviors of individuals within a social body. In expanding on his perspective on the idea of power, Foucault undertakes to study how the organization of individuals’ time, space, activities and behaviors are regulated (Foucault, 1979). To illustrate the concept, Foucault gives an example of the army. He asserted that during the early years of the 17th century, a soldier could be recognized based on his or her natural traits like pride, courage and strength (Foucault, 1979, p. 144).
Foucault argues that discipline plays a major role in the creation of the individuality of a person. He observes the descending nature of individualization in the direction of the subjects that is the individuals over which power is exercised (Foucault, 1991, p. 193). Moreover, Foucault suggests that discipline can be enforced with the help of complex surveillance systems (O’Farrell, 2005). This is because most individuals find it difficult to comply with its requirements. As a result, it becomes necessary to put some important measures in place that can help to promote compliance. For instance, punishment enhances the maintenance of discipline. Ball (2013) in explaining the concept of discipline discuses how discipline is used for the purpose of correcting and controlling the behaviors of individuals. He justifies the use of force in maintenance of discipline.
An example of discipline within the professional experience can be seen in the military posture. A soldier normally adopts a certain posture as a result of specific guidelines, demands and exercises. These requirements are reinforced through the usage of physical force and other forms of adjustments (Foucault, 1979). Thus, discipline describes one of the ways through which power can be exercised. The implications of this concept as explained by Foucault are that it reveals a coercive way of exercising power. The concept presents a challenge as illustrated by Foucault in that it creates an artificial space within which it is applied. It can therefore be stated that the concept of discipline can be fully understood in terms of the context of its application and how it is applied.
Application
Foucault’s idea of discipline is applicable in various areas of the education system. The concept helps education managers, leaders and administrators to understand that although they are in positions of power, they are subject to discipline (Ball, 2013). This is either in terms of various surveillance systems or through self-control and management. The concept of discipline makes the education system a setting in which the participants are constrained by acceptable principles (Zembylas, 2003). For example, students are required to follow school rules and act in accordance to them. Those who break the rules are normally punished. This makes the education system serve as a political means through which power and knowledge are modified and maintained. The application of the concept of discipline in the education system helps to control the behaviors of students (Ball, 2013). It helps to ensure that they adopt good behaviors by adhering to various school rules. Discipline thus helps to improve the individuality of students
Governmentality
The concept of governmentality was developed by Foucault in order to comprehend the administration of populations in modern Europe within the context of the emergence of the idea of states. Foucault explains governmentality as a way the government uses to produce the ideal citizens who can help it to fulfill its policies. In expanding on his perspective on the concept of governmentality, Foucault undertakes to study it as an epistemological kind of phenomenon that leads to the production of subjects. To illustrate the concept, Foucault gives an example of ancient prisons that were designed by Jeremy Bentham. These prisons, referred to as panopticons, were constructed as ring cells with guard towers at the center. The panoptic design allowed a guard to observe the prisoners at any time. It created a sense of being watched all the time. Under such circumstances an inmate in the cell ‘becomes the principle of his own subjection (Foucault, 1979, p. 203).
Foucault argues that governmentality entails various organized practices that are used in the governance of the subjects. These include certain mentalities and techniques used by those in power to legitimize their authority (Foucault, 1991). Moreover, Foucault suggests that governmentality creates suitable conditions for the formation of “docile bodies” that can be used in the modern political and economic institutions (Lemke, 2002). Nikolas Rose in explaining the concept of governmentality discusses how governmentality works. He argues that technologies of power such as schools and prisons are used to shape the behavior of populations (Lemke, 2002).
An example of governmentality within the professional experience can be seen in the healthcare system. Healthcare professionals control the lives of patients by advising them on how to lead healthy lives. This situation shows how the government uses benevolent institutions such as hospitals to gain control over a self-disciplined population (Foucault, 1991). Thus, governmentality describes how the government shapes the conduct of its citizens. The implications of this concept as explained by Foucault are that is reveals a power imbalance between those in power and the ones governed. The concept presents a challenge as illustrated by Foucault in that it ignores the subjective experiences and choices of individuals. It can therefore, be argued that governmentality is both the way the government exercises control of power and how it teaches people about governance.
Application
Foucault’s concept of governmentality can be applied in the areas of educational leadership and management. Educational managers can use governmentality to learn different discourses of educational leadership (Simons & Masschelein, 2006). They can learn more about how to control both the educators and the learners. This will help them to become effective leaders. Governmentality helps educational policy makers to understand that educational leadership is more than just ordering and managing learners as “docile bodies.” It also involves the ordering and management of principals and teachers through various self-management practices, including the code of ethics for teachers (Simons & Masschelein, 2006). Governmentality manifests itself in the education sector as a kind of power, which is circulated through various routines meant for the enhancement of individualized self regulation (Baker, 2004). This is achieved through the process of bureaucratizing and narrowing the sense of authority.
Ivan Illich’s concept of deschooling the society is relevant because schooling limit the children’s creativity, hence, children do not explore their capabilities rather; they execute the demands of the curriculum. Schools have curricula and every teacher has schemes of work. The teacher through the guidance of the curriculum designs the activities that the students should engage in to accomplish learning of a certain aspect or topic. The teacher always has an outline of the learning outcome and the indicators for success in the learning. All this are designs without the incorporation of the students’ desires or participation. As the students learn, they executed the activities pre-planned by the teacher and directed towards a specific learning experience. If a student comes up with a novel outcome with is not covered in the curriculum, then the student is not in the right course of learning (Illich, 2013).
It is a requirement that the nurses should build clinical competence to serve patients better from an individual perspective. Individual scope of operation in any profession is determined or defined by the basic or formal education attained along the lines of that profession. This is the main reason as to why the nursing education is considered the foundation of developing or building clinical competence to help the nurses serve the patients better (International Transplant Nurses Society 2009). Apart from the formal education, individual scope of operation is also believed to attain its evolvement through a professional lifetime; this is majorly based on the experiences gained during the practice. The individual scope of operation or practice in the nursing profession has heavily impacted on by the clinical experience in a number of sectors, continued education or learning to improve on the already acquired knowledge, formal course work and various developments in the healthcare. These are areas, which are believed to be keys in determining the various factors in the nursing profession within the state of Texas.
The clinical experience is one important area in the life of any nurse or practitioner in the nursing area. Clinical experience is important for an individual practitioner based on the knowledge and skills it instills on the individual. At the individual level, it is important that any practitioner is in a position to handle in the best way possible a wide range of clinical matters. However, to handle these clinical matters in the best way possible one will have to undergo basic and advanced nursing education. This is because most nursing practice environments are based or subjected to clinical issues of various kinds (Boore & Deeny 2012). Having clinical experience will no doubt improve the value and quality of service offered by the nurse practitioners to the patients in the society. To gain or improve the clinical experience, the state of various nursing institutions is keen to offer avenues, which can help the newly recruited, and experienced practitioners gain the experience. This is important in ensuring that any trained nurse does not become exasperated in the efforts of trying to gain clinical experience in the field of operation. However, clinical experience can only be provided to trained practitioners or those with basic information about nursing. That is why it is significant to undergo education in nursing at both basic and advanced levels.
Nursing education is no doubt the foundation for building the various competencies required in the clinical setting and other nursing aspects to provide quality services to the community. Based on this, it is therefore important for the concerned bodies to ensure quality-nursing education to help maintain high standards.
References
Baker, B. M. (2004). Dangerous coagulations?The uses of Foucault in the study of education. New York [u.a.: Lang.
Ball, S. J. (2013). Foucault and Education: Disciplines and Knowledge. London: Routledge.
Biebricher, T. (2011). Faith-based initiatives and pastoral power. Economy and Society, 410 (3): 399-420.
Boore, J. R. P & Deeny, P. (2012). Nursing education: planning and delivering the curriculum. Sage, Los Angeles.
Dreyfus, H. L., & Rabinow, P. (2000). Michel Foucault: Beyond structuralism and hermeneutics. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Foucault, M. (1991). “Governmentality” The Foucault Effect; Studies in Governmentality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Foucault, M. (1978). The History of Sexuality. Volume 1. An Introduction. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Foucault, M. (1979). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Random House.
Foucault, M. (1995). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. New York: Vintage Books.
Foucault, M. (2000). The Subject and Power. New York: Random House: The New Press.
Foucault, M. (2007). Security, Territory and Population. London: Routledge.
Foucault, M. (2013). Religion and Culture. London: Routledge.
Golder, B. (2007). Foucault and the Genealogy of Pastoral Power. Radical Philosophy Review, 10 (2): 157–176.
Illich I. (2013). Deschooling the Society. KKIEN Publ. Int.
International Transplant Nurses Society. (2009). Transplant nursing: scope and standards of practice. American Nurses Association, Silver Spring, MD.
Lemke, T. (2002). Foucault, Governmentality, and Critique. Rethinking Marxism: A Journal of Economics, Culture & Society, 14 (3): 49-64.
Masschelein, J. (2004). How to Conceive of Critical Educational Theory Today? Journal of Philosophy of Education, 38 (3): 351–367.
O’Farrell, C. (2005). Michel Foucault. London: SAGE.
Simons, M. & Masschelein, J. (2006). The Learning Society and Governmentality: An introduction. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 38 (4): 417–430.
Zembylas, M. (2003). Interrogating “Teacher Identity”: Emotion, Resistance, and Self-Formation. Educational Theory, 53 (1): 107–127.
With a student-centered approach, I create engaging and informative blog posts that tackle relevant topics for students. My content aims to equip students with the knowledge and tools they need to succeed academically and beyond.
by Herman Bailey | May 29, 2023 | Essays |
How Culture Builds Self Image
Culture, according to Krois is the assimilated outline of human behavior knowledge and belief that relies upon man’s capacity for transmitting and learning knowledge to future generations (7). Since we are social creatures, our behavior, beliefs, and knowledge are attained from the social set we live in. As a youngster grows up in a specific culture they adapt to the practices and beliefs and then begin to practice them in daily activities (Para 4). This development is identified as acculturation.
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According to Berger acculturation is how we absorb the attitudes, practices, and philosophies of specific social groups (43). Self-images are specific and exclusive to each person. The international marketing and could definitely affect the process of marketing adversely. The constraint of language and culture may pass a verdict, which in turn will make the individual query their personality, their sense of self. The person will either use the finding to model their identity in a different direction or reinstill their recognized and strong solid of self (Berger 21).
We have taken up our ancestors’ findings, principles, and customs which have been collected and changed generation after generation and to which new elements will be added for generations to come. This point makes it simpler for us to comprehend why a child who lived separated from society turned out to be completely stupid and without sufficient behavior (Davis et al, 35).
Our memory needs to be reinforced by external proof. In other terms, we need to depend on other individuals in our surroundings to make sure that what we recollect is true. Our decisions of career, clothing, mates, and others are hugely impacted by the society we live in. The sexy red dress would have no meaning by itself if there was no one to venerate it. Our interactions play a key role in developing and shaping our self-images. It is from and within this social system that we model our personal traits and individualities, and it is this network that provides meaning to our self-images (Krois, 47).
Thus, United States (Arroyo, 2001). The Japanese culture has a chief role in shaping our self-image. It plays a big role in each self-image but because it cannot be observed when just looking at a person, it often goes unnoticed.
Being recognized, identified with, and reinforced by a business interventions in most companies and industrial sectors. Russian politicians held prominent seats with invalid certifications from cultural setting is important to our perception of security. Studies have demonstrated that societal support and intellect of belonging have positive impacts on physical and mental health while social segregation has negative impacts (Davis et al, 51). The bond between mental/physical health and health care, cultural factors have a strong influence on patients’ and families” decisions. Some cultural assimilation remains solid throughout our livelihoods.
Just as cultures are dynamic, so are our self-images, which are consequential from traditional conceptualizations. A man may be a husband, a father, a divorcee, or a grandfather at different times in his life. He may be a factory worker, an immigrant, or a refugee (Berger, 67). Each of these standings is accompanied by a set of cultural expectations and norms. Additionally, if a man moves from a culture to another, he may adopt some of his different culture’s concepts about the role of a husband while still keeping some of his old culture’s principles. As people move through life, their personal pasts interact with their humans from centuries back as early as 14th century. It has been a backbone of cultures in a dynamic intricacy (Krois, 60).
Because much of cultural education takes place out of awareness, we are not always alert of how culture models our personal images. A developing phenomenon in present days complex civilizations are people who self-identify as multicultural or bicultural. For example, a bicultural person would be one who understands ably interacts efficiently and without struggle in two cultures, many at times a custom culture and the culture into which she and her family has immigrated (Davis et al, 62).
A bicultural individual may speak more than one dialectal fluently. Characters that self-identify as multicultural normally acknowledge multiple cultural and ethnic backgrounds and might be multilingual.
Many bicultural people can move lithely from one culture to the subsequent, but for some, the variations in law is normally enforced. One can see the reasons for the difference in deviance between cultures avail problems of relational difficulties or marginality. Some individuals may be disregarded for the reason that they have mislaid the support and security of their inherent cultures and have not been able to assimilate into another culture (Krois, 70). Such personalities are mainly at risk for poor physical and mental health. This issue of cultural relegation is especially acute when considering the health requirements of refugees, many of whom might have left their cultural motherland unwillingly or under force.
A culturally mindful health care expert will be attentive to potential issues of cultural uncertainty and sidelining in these people (Berger, 85). Such situations also present distinctive mental health problems that require the helpfulness of culturally knowledgeable specialists.
Today, with the swift upsurge in international travel and telecommunication, people are experiencing inter-cultural contact like never before. One approach to studying this has been to look at how visitors to foreign lands blend into new cultural surroundings. The studies have shown that everyone reacts to intercultural contact differently (Davis et al, 91). For instance, one may decide to assimilate into a new culture by putting a lot of emphasis and effort on blending into the different culture and not preserving his or her heritage. While someone else might choose to integrate: maintaining their heritage culture active while at the same time contributing to the wider community.
Work Cited
John Michael Krois. The embodiment in Cognition and Culture. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishers 2007. Print
Arthur Asa Berger. Ads, Fads, and Consumer Culture: Advertising’s Impact on American Character and Society. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007. Print
Rocío G Davis et al.Ethnic life writing and Histories: Genres, Performance, and Culture Berlin: Lit, 2007.Print.
With a student-centered approach, I create engaging and informative blog posts that tackle relevant topics for students. My content aims to equip students with the knowledge and tools they need to succeed academically and beyond.
by Herman Bailey | May 28, 2023 | Essays |
Slide 2
It is difficult to overstate the significance of nation’s education system for children with disability. Of course education is important for all children and mostly children with disabilities. Indeed, special needs provides the difference between intellectually stimulation, socially fulfilling, and economically productive life and future. Also, education has the potential of affecting the life of a child health wise by influencing their ability to manage their conditions, advocate for themselves, and navigate complex insurance, medical, and social service systems throughout their life.
Slide 3
Recent studies have supported that inclusion is the most effective approach in the education system than either mainstreaming of integration. Ferguson’s project to attain social learning outcomes in classrooms established that integration is less effective. Likewise, an investigation on children with disability that took seven months revealed that mainstreaming only on a part time students were considered outsiders by other students in class (Delia and Peggy (2009, p. 586).
Slide 4
Existing data suggests that education disadvantage is prevalent among disabled students and this reduces their chances of advocating for themselves. While other argues that poorly managed schools bears the most responsibility for low educational achievement of children with disability, optimists indicate that lac for educational structures that supports special learning is the key challenge.
Slide 5
The impediments of education arising from children with disabilities which prevents children from deriving appropriate benefit from educational institutions. These students have special needs and have faced elevated discrimination and injustices in educational institutions resulting to educational disadvantage. Children with disability have diminished life chances and often leave formal education without recognized qualifications.
Slide 6
Education and the qualifications related to it in a broader view determines the life chances of children with disability. Most children with disability leave the formal system of education with limited or no qualification increasing their disadvantages in the society. Given the related risk of educational underachievement and disability, educational disadvantage mentions one of the most principle themes of strategy to support children with disability that risk leaving .
Slide 7
Children with disabilities are highly excluded from the education sector. While some parents are not aware of the educational rights of their children with special needs, others over protect their children. Also, come parents, especially from the socio-economically stable households face stigma and lock their children from education. As a result, children with disabilities are locked from education reduce their chances of getting involved in income-generating activities, injury, higher risk of illness and impairment.
Slide 8
Literature in this topic indicates that children living with disability do not fully benefit from education. Clancy (2001) writes that there is under-representation of children with disability groups entering higher education. According to her, only 10.5 percent of all enrolling for full time higher education came from children with special needs. Besides, 71 percent of these children came from households where parents are of high socio-economic status or worked as a professional
Slide 9
A failure by educational stakeholders to address inequalities, discrimination and stigmatization is linked with gender, wealth, location, language, ethnicity, and type of disability. Currently, Ireland, just like other countries are still far from the goal of ensuring educational inclusivity despite the robust measures in place. Ensuring that all citizens access equal chances of education regardless of their circumstances should be at the heart of educational stakeholders.
Slide 10
The location of educational institutions plays a significant role in whether a child with disability will enroll in school or not. Indeed, most children with disability are concentrated in rural areas with limited educational exposure. The social unjust where these children families cannot afford urban life limits their chances of admissions in urban educational institutions. Likewise, only children from urban are favored for admission, as such, children from rural areas are less privileged in terms of better access to education.
Slide 11
Most educationists have observed that good education has been virtually monopolized by urban society. These educational institutions are selective with respect to socio-economic background of the students with special needs. The students originating from higher educational, income and occupational backgrounds are given preference, thus locking out children with disabilities that most of them come from low socio-economic backgrounds.
Slide 12
The embodied state of cultural capital denotes that cultural capital exists in form of long-lasting dispositions in form of body and mind. The institutionalized state is a form of objectification which must be set apart since it confers with original properties on the cultural capital presumed to guarantee. Lastly, objective state of cultural capital exists in form of cultural goods such as books and instruments. Achieving educational qualifications is related to capital and time investment. Theorists observes that the level of dedication to schooling differs across the social classes that leads to different levels of academic achievement and investment.
Slide 13
The notion of cultural capital follows the theory of Bourdieu that has generated a great deal of literature. His works on cultural capital is seen in the context of class inequalities in educational attainment and class reproduction in advanced capitalist societies. According to him, education system of industrialized societies functions as a procedure to legitimate class inequalities. As such, success in the education system is facilitated by the possession of cultural capital and of higher class habitus.
Slide 14
According to Bourdieu, the education system on favors the individuals in the higher social classes. The education system demands that everyone alike that they achieve what it does not provide. As such, there is dominance of cultural competence of familiarity relationship with culture produced by family up bridging when it transmits dominant culture (Bourdieu, 1977, p. 494). Education is the most effective means of perpetuating the existing social patterns as it justifies social inequalities and recognizes the cultural heritage. Children with disability that by virtue come from low social classes are, according to Bourdieu disadvantaged in terms of getting the benefits of unjust education system.
Slide 15
In conclusion, children with special needs are discriminated in the educational system. While Bourdieu’s project explains that education system is made to favor the status quo, affirmative action is needed to ensure inclusivity in the education system. This will enable the children with disability access better education and improve their living standards and advocate for their rights.
With a student-centered approach, I create engaging and informative blog posts that tackle relevant topics for students. My content aims to equip students with the knowledge and tools they need to succeed academically and beyond.
by Herman Bailey | May 28, 2023 | Essays |
Introduction
Neuroscience is defined as the study of the nervous system (Zambo, 2013). Ethics is an area of study dealing with ideas on what is bad and good behavior. It is also a branch of philosophy that deals with what is wrong or right morally (Zambo, 2013). Kim & Sankey (2009) defined education as a process or act of acquiring or imparting general knowledge, developing the reasoning and judgment powers. Educational neuroscience is the intersection between education, brain and mind (Carter & Frith, 1998). According to Zambo (2013) the neuroscience findings have stirred ethical questions about education nature and the nature of the childcare. The essay will discuss and critically analyze the issues that draw link between ethics, neuroscience and the nature of education. The essay agrees that the findings from neuroscience are stirring ethical questions about the education nature and childcare.
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Because of technological advancement, the field of neuroscience has been developing and growing rapidly. Kim & Sankey (2010) noted that because of the development in technology, the neuroscientists have observed the brain development, its functioning and how brain performs its tasks. However, with the technological advancement and innovation in the neuroscience field which mostly used technical jargon and complex findings, there arose challenges with the most notable one being an early childhood education (Geake 2009). There was a need of translating the technical findings into understandable and simpler information for the teachers to use in teaching the young children.
Moshman (2011) indicated that information about educational neuroscience is nowadays available in the curriculum books for the teachers. The information in the books according to Sylvan & Christodoulou (2010) helps the teachers in understanding how the young children lean, think and self regulate. However, Hruby & Goswami (2011) asserted that the information about educational neuroscience can also alter radically how children are taught and nurtured.
The brains of the young children are always unique and different, and this is because of their structures and functions, and this is also translated to the actions of the young students. For instance, in the brain structure, amygdale is a structure within the brain, and it works in collaboration with other structures to activate the flight or fight response. Understanding of the brain structure to an educational teacher is helpful in understanding why some young children tend to fear, similarly, understanding of the brain structure by the teachers will help them in understanding why some students have learning difficulties. Kim & Sankey (2009) asserted that the knowledge about neuroscience to the teachers is significant in understanding the biology of their student’s behaviors and learning.
Carter & Frith (1998) noted that as much as neuroscience has been simplified for the teachers for easy understanding and application in the classrooms, and it also has its limitation for the educators since it’s a complex field. As much as the teachers read about the structure, development and functioning of the brain, many teachers tend to bypass the limitation for the teachers on neuroscience and misuse or overextend ideas and knowledge from neuroscience. For instance, some teachers tend to apply hemispheric strategies to remedy complex problems of learning like autism and dyslexia. Furthermore, some teachers are in support of Ritalin and Adderall usage for the young students who suffer from attention problems. Ritalin and Adderall are psycho-stimulant drugs for self regulation and their proposition or recommendation by a teacher is too extreme in the neuroscience field, since there are limitations for the teachers.
Kim & Sankey (2010) noted that some of the teachers or pre-service school teachers easily believe in ideas or neuromyths with only minimal scientific truth. For instance, may teachers misquote, misread and over extend ideas from neuroscience to support their neuromyths and biasness. Most of the teachers do not get facts from the educational neuroscience textbooks, or open their minds for the valid information but mostly pay attention to what is aligned in their beliefs (Geake, 2009). Furthermore, they create narratives, come up with their own folk theories based on their beliefs they have recited and retold countless of times. This trend and tendency among most of the teachers has both ethical and educational implications (Moshman, 2011). According to Sylvan & Christodoulou (2010), fallacious beliefs about education and neuroscience could cause teachers to teat unfairly the young children, spend their hard earn cash on programs products that that are worthless and has no good, and lastly set low expectations. Similarly, Hruby & Goswami (2011) noted that neuromyths of the teachers have a major influence in shaping the views and perceptions of educators.
In a study conducted by Zambo & Zambo (2011), the findings indicated that the most educators have an interest in the field of neuroscience and therefore used television, internet, course and workshops to get more information about the subject. Simi8larly, the educators believed that neuroscience should be incorporated in their syllabus as part of their training and furthermore, they believed that this way will make them better teachers especially when they dealing with special need students. Zambo (2013) also indicated that their findings from their survey showed that the teachers believed that the strategies and products they are using assist significantly in learning because there exists a link with the neuroscience for example “brain gym,” and “Your Baby Can Read” among others. Generally, to most teachers, fads precede facts and research (Zambo & Zambo, 2011).
Zambo (2013) also indicated that when it came to believing in the neuroscience value for teachers, their study indicated that not all teachers believed it. Some believed in neuroscience wholeheartedly, few did not believe at all while others hold reservations. The believers of neuroscience saw neuroscientists as experts in the neuroscience fields and accept it because of its reliance on advanced technologies. They believe that the neuroscientists can tell them how and what to teach and because of that, they have a thirst for information. The believers therefore take courses, attend workshops and even buy DVDs to assist them in learning about the brain. Moreover, they share the information gotten between each other. Kim & Sankey (2009) indicated that the believers think that neuroscience can help them know how to teach the special needs students. To them, Zambo & Zambo (2011) summarized that neuroscience can be applied in diagnosis of the learning problems and in understanding how to differentiate different styles of learning. In contrast, the non believers who are few in number are hesitant and cautionary. Zambo (2013) stated that the non believers will not accept any neuroscience information without facts and evidence. To them, they believed that interactions between the students and the teachers mattered more than the screen image.
Carter & Frith (1998) stated that the student teachers in colleges or those undergoing the preparation program for teachers, and the working teachers in schools have exposure to information about neuroscience. However, on believing on the on the neuroscience benefits, the educators get categorized I different groups in that some unquestioningly accept that neuroscience can provide ways of improving their instruction and teaching especially for the special needs students, and also in the management of the students in classrooms. However, others view neuroscience with skepticism. Geake (2009) asserted that there is little doubt concerning neuroscience that it can illuminate learning biological basis, help educators, caregivers, and parents in understanding how a brain learns things, and confirm differences in development, especially when it is combined with other related disciplines like cognitive science, human development and behavioral science. Similarly, Kim & Sankey (2010) indicated that there is much evidence to show that the educators know how to use the information where it is deemed fit.
According to Zombe (2013), neuroscience can be applied in the creation of false hopes and also in marketing of products that have no or little salutary effects. A long time critic referred to it as “a bridge too far” and warned educators to take cautionary measures in applying neuroscience ideas in their fields. Similarly, Geake (2009) observed that most educators when it comes to the idea of neuroscience, they become overzealous often.
In a study conducted by Sylvan and Christodoulou (2010), they found that in most instances neuroscience is being applied in the creation of learning theories and principles, creation of products and programs claimed to have brain links explicitly, and also in development of strategies of changing behaviors. In their conclusion, the researchers summarized that each of the applications of the neurosciences makes sense if they satisfy and match the children’s educational needs, are aligned with other researches that are scientific, are cost effective and produce behavioral effects that are observable. However, the ethical question being raised is whether the application of the neuroscience to the children’s education does not meet the children’s educational needs, and does not produce the desired behavioral effects. In simple terms, it means that neuroscience would be then have been oversold and misapplied at the expense of the children which is totally unethical.
To address the problem that faces neuroscience education, Hruby and Goswami (2011) proposed solutions by calling for converge of different disciplines such as cultural, cognitive, social and brain. Furthermore, the neuroscientists can help the teachers in understanding of how the brain of a human being decodes and comprehends a language in cases where there are alignments of conceptual and methodological challenges. In understanding the link between neuroscience, education and ethics, it is of great importance that the caregivers and the educators have a realization that:
1. Some neuroscience information is being misinterpreted, overextended and oversimplified. All these have their own implications
2. There are products, books and curricula that purport to be using findings from the neuroscience in promotion of improved learning while they do not have any backing scientifically
3. Catch phrases that are emotional are being used in posing easy and quick answers to behavioral and learning challenges that are complex
4. Testimonials are not similar to the gathered empirical facts by researchers with valid and reliable tools.
5. There exists neuromyths and they are difficulty to change because they satisfy the intuitive notions and reductionists of how the brain functions
6. Images from the new technologies can be misleading and persuasive
7. Neuroscience if interpreted in isolation and also literally, can reduce emotions, behavior, and learning to the biological processes alone
Moshman (2011) observed that the educators wants to be effective and are searching for new strategies and ideas, and are also turning to the neuroscience or support and insight, however, Moshman (2011) further cautions that if the educators are sold bad ideas and faulty information, they may determine unfairly the children’s trajectory, offer unethical or unnecessary treatments, and also reduce behavior and learning to process human contact need. The gap between education and neuroscience is being gradually forged and therefore teachers need to tread with caution. Sylvan & Christodoulou (2010) stated that teaching is one of the moral enterprises and therefore teachers must consider what can be gotten from science and also the involved ethics. This is because the scientific answers originate from techniques and tools that are precise, systematic and detached. However, the moral questions arise from the application of the findings and tools on the lives of children.
Moral and ethical issues that arise from Neuroscience
Neuroscience is gradually seeping into the lives of people especially the young children and therefore moral and ethical concerns are cropping up. Zambo & Zambo (2011) pointed out that neuroscience can be used for bad and good purposes, and this has led to the birth of neuroethics field that encompasses legal, ethical and the social implications.
According to Zambo & Zambo (2011), the spread of information and the technological advancements have brought two concerns. The first one questions the technical capabilities of neuroscience and what it can be used to do. For instance, using the images of the brain in determination of personalities, drug prescription in alteration of the brain chemistry, and utilization of treatments to enhance brain functioning. Second is the practical implication of neuroscience and what can be learnt from it, for instance the biological basis of personality, behavior and cognition. All these calls for ethics in neuroscience as suggested by Hruby & Goswami (2011)
Zambo (2013) suggested that if the caregivers, parents and the educators fail to act responsibly and fairly, consider safety, keep the information confidential , and consider the unintended neuroscience treatment consequences can bring to the children’s lives, then it will be used in unethical ways, for instance, medication of young children suffering from attention deficits. Kim & Sankey (2009) observed that in the past one decade, many younger children and adolescents are under medication because their teachers and parents want them to academically, emotionally and socially succeed. However, despite the fact that the young school children are medicated, absolute proof of the benefits is unavailable. Moreover, unintended side effects such as cloudy minds, sleeplessness and weight loss (Carter & Frith, 1998). This raises the ethical questions on the application of neuroscience on the young children.
The objective of this essay is not to condone or criticize medication use, but rather to make the caregivers, parents and educators aware of the arising ethical and moral questions. The questions arising are whether medication causes psychological harm to the young children, for instance, whether it lower motivation and self esteem. Another question is whether the young children under medication will be robbed of their identity? And what are the responsibilities of the educators, caregivers and the parents. Kim & Sankey (2010) argued that given that the personalities and the minds of the young children are in the formation stage, medical intervention can render them incapable of assuming their own lives authorship by robbing them their identities. Because of the advancement in biotechnologies which allow adults to intervene directly to the neurobiology of children, caregivers, teachers and parents need to have a reflection on their actions and make sure that the children are allowed to have a voice and be themselves. The arising ethical and moral issues are affecting children, parents, teachers and the entire society and therefore caution should be observed.
Education as a moral/ethical enterprise
According to Geake (2009), the powers and the status the teachers have over the lives of children could either be ethically be bad or good. For instance, the teachers could apply their powers in setting low expectations for the teachers and in tracking of the children and instruct in a manner that that impart their own point of view. For the teachers to be moral, they need to listen to their students’ voices, care about their social, physical, moral and cognitive development, and respect the opinions of every child (Moshman, 2011).
Neuroscience is gradually changing the way in which children are viewed. Caring for every child’s identity, free will and self worth are some of the complex issues teachers are facing currently. Zambo & Zambo (2011) suggested that in training of teachers, at all the development stages, it should include ways of developing ethical and moral reasoning of the teachers. To realize this goal, some of the practices that should be adopted include application of case studies that are focused on moral issues such as a hidden curriculum, authority and due process. Other practices include offering time of preparation to discuss and reflect on the moral issues that impacts in the lives of the children and the teachers.
Ethical decisions, educators and neuroscience
Teaching of the young children is a moral endeavor, and because o the advancement in science, the ethical challenges faced by the caregivers and the educator are also changing and growing. Neuroscience information is changing what people know about children. Sylvan & Christodoulou (2010) noted that the today’s parents and educators are applying facts from neuroscience in understanding if children, making instructional decisions, and in confirmation and disconfirmation of the ideas and beliefs they have.
Because of the rising ethical concerns and the need for ethical decisions, neuroethics have brought many questions into focus because of the power adults posses on the children’s lives. Hruby & Goswami (2011) highlighted some of the approaches to ethical decisions philosophers have uncovered to assist in dealing with the moral and ethical questions:
1. A Utilitarian Approach– the approach questions the future benefits and effects of new ideas in greater good terms. The individuals believe in harmful effects prevention, punishment of the offenders and rehabilitation of those that can be saved.
2. A Rights Approach– it questions how rights are respected by ideas. The individuals believe in the freedom of choice
3. A Justice or Fairness Approach- the individual focuses on equity and justice. They ask for the benefactors and looser of the findings. To them discrimination and favoritism are wrong
4. A Common-Good Approach– the individuals focus on connections and assume people are linked inextricably to each other, the whole community and globally.
5. A Virtue Approach-the individuals focus on being or becoming virtuous, believe that every individual should live up or develop certain ideals. The moral development of educators and their values fit the virtue approach.
Conclusion
In conclusions, the treatment and findings from neuroscience can have both negative and positive effects. Interventions help the children in focusing, understanding how to self regulate, become better readers. However, caution should be taken since it can rob the young children their identities, confirm hatred and bias, absolve responsibility of individuals and be costly. Neuroscience limits between practice and research should be center stage when facing the challenges of blending neuroscience in schools, homes and communities.
References
Zambo, D. (2013) Early Childhood and Neuroscience / Chapter 2: The Practical and Ethical Concerns of Using Neuroscience to Teach Young Children and Help Them Self-Regulate.
Kim, M., & Sankey, D. (September 01, 2009). Towards a Dynamic Systems Approach to Moral Development and Moral Education: A Response to the “JME” Special Issue, September 2008. Journal of Moral Education, 38, 3, 283-298.
Carter, R., & Frith, C. D. (1998). Mapping the mind. London: Wiedenfeld & Nicolson.
Kim, M., & Sankey, D. (July 01, 2010). The Dynamics of Emergent Self-Organisation: Reconceptualising Child Development in Teacher Education. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 35, 4, 79-98.
Geake, J. G. (2009). The brain at school: Educational neuroscience in the classroom. Maidenhead, England: McGraw-Hill/Open University Press.
Moshman, D. (2011). Adolescent Rationality and Development: Cognition, Morality, and Identity, Third Edition. Hoboken: Taylor & Francis.
Zambo, D., & Zambo, R. (2011). Teachers’ beliefs about neuroscience and education. Teaching
Educational Psychology, 7 (2), 25–41.
Sylvan, L. J., & Christodoulou, J. A. (March 01, 2010). Understanding the Role of Neuroscience in Brain Based Products: A Guide for Educators and Consumers. Mind, Brain, and Education, 4, 1, 1-7.
Hruby, G. G., & Goswami, U. (2011). Neuroscience and reading: A review for reading education
researchers. Reading Research Quarterly, 46 (2), 156–172.Retrieved from dx.doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.46.2.4
With a student-centered approach, I create engaging and informative blog posts that tackle relevant topics for students. My content aims to equip students with the knowledge and tools they need to succeed academically and beyond.
by Herman Bailey | May 28, 2023 | Essays |
Introduction
Classical sociological theories according to Weber & Parsons (1964) are theories of great ambition and scope that either has roots in the prevailing culture during that period or were created between 1800s and 1900s in Europe. Many classical theorists played significant roles in sociology development, and they include theorists like Karl Marx, Max Weber amongst others. Moreover, these theorists’ ideas continue being relevant to today’s sociological theory because contemporary sociologists refer to them. These sociological classical theories have become classics because they have vast application and centrally deal with important social issues. This essay will use two classical sociological theorists, Karl Marx, and Max Weber, and apply two problem to a social problem or issue. Specifically, the essay will focus on how capitalism dictates what is popular culture and how popular culture then supports capitalism in relation to the theories of Karl Marx and Max Weber.
The Class Theory by Karl Marx
The class theory proposed by Karl Max is founded on the premise that all existing society’s history is the class struggles history. According to Karl Marx’s view, ever since the society of the human race emerged from its relatively undifferentiated and primitive state, it has fundamentally remained divided between clashing classes in the pursuit of different class interests. That is, between buyers and sellers, exploiters and the exploited, instead of functional collaboration. The confrontation of power and class interest that they bring in their wake are to Karl Marx’s central determinant of historical and social process (Marx & Kamenka 1983).
The analysis of Marx centers continually on how the relationships between people are shaped by their positions in relation to their production means. That is, by their varied access to scarce power and resources. He noted that the unequal access should not under all conditions and at all times lead to active class struggles. However, Marx considered it axiomatic and that the class conflict potential in every differentiated society is inherent, since a society like that generates conflicts of interest systematically between groups and persons located differently within social stricture, and more specifically, in relation to production means (Marx & In Caute 1967). He was concerned with the manner in which particular social structure positions tended to shape incumbents social experiences and to predispose them to oriented actions to improve the fate collectively.
According to Marx & Kamenka (1983), class interest does not begin from the beginning but develop through people’s exposure to occupying certain positions in a society or to social circumstances. Therefore, in early industrial enterprises, personal interest of a group of people who are unknown to each other was divided by competition. However, their wages maintenance, which was a common interest they had against their employers brought them together. This implies that separate individuals come together to form a class as far as they have a common goal or battle against another class; otherwise these individuals are very hostile to each other as competitors.
To Marx’s class theory, the stratification systems basically rest on means of production to aggregates of men. The major modern classes according to Marx are the owners of capital, labor power, and the landowners whose respective income sources are profits, wages, and ground rent. Basically, classes are aggregate of individuals performing the same function in the production organization. However, self-conscious classes which is distinct from aggregate of individuals who share a common fate, their need for emergence depend on many conditions which includes communication network, some form of organization, a common enemy, and masses of people concentration (Marx & Caute 1967). Weber& Kalberg (2005) also echoed that classes that are self-conscious only arise when and if there is a convergence of material and ideal interests that is a combination of political and economic demands with ideological and moral quests.
Based on the same reasoning, Marx asserted that the working class was bound to develop consciousness of class once there were appropriate conditions. Moreover, he contended that the bourgeoisie was incapable of developing a general consciousness of their collective interests because of the competitive relations that are inherent between capitalist producers (Marx & Kamenka 1983).
Theory of Social Class by Max Weber
This only marginally differed from Marx in his definition of men who (i) “have specific causal component in common of their life chances as far as (ii) this component is exclusively represented by economic interests in the good possession and income opportunities, and (iii) it is represented under commodity’s conditions or labor market (Weber & Parsons 1964). Weber further argued that communal class action will come out only when and if the connections between the consequences and causes of the situation of the class become transparent.” Moreover, Weber’s stratification theory differs with that of Marx when he introduced the “status group” category.
Classification of men into the categories is based on their patterns of consumptions rather than their position in the process of production or in the market. According to Weber & Kalberg (2005), Marx had overlooked such categorization relevance because his attention was exclusive to the sphere of production. Contrary to the classes which may not or may be communal groupings, normally status groups are communities, held together by proper lifestyles notions and by honor and social esteem accorded by others to them. Associated with this are restrictions expectations on social intercourse with those not belonging to that circle and the social distance assumed towards inferiors. In his typology, sociological notion of Weber on social category is dependent on definitions of social relationships. That is, a status group can only exist to the extent the others accords its members degrading or prestige, which alienates them from the rest of the social actors and creates the social distance necessary between “us” and “them”( Weber & Parsons 1964).
There are high correlations empirically between standing in the status order and in the class. For instance, in the capitalist society, the class that is economically ascendant will also acquire high status in the course of time; yet in principle, the propertyless and the propertied people may be in the same status group. In the view of Weber & Kalberg (2005), every society is categorized into strata and groupings with lifestyles that are distinct and world views. While sometimes class groupings and status may conflict, in others their members may fairly accept stable subordination and superordination fairly.
Regarding the analysis of power in the society, he again introduced the notion of pluralism. Despite the fact that he agrees with Karl Marx in certain areas, Weber extends and refines analytical scheme of Marx. According to Karl Marx, power is always rooted in economic relations, implying that those owning the means of production exercise political power either indirectly or directly. Weber concurs that the quite often, for example, in the modern capitalist world, the predominant form is economic power. However, he objects that economic owner emergence may be an as a result of the power that exists on the grounds. For instance, men who are commanding large beaurocratic organizations may get control of great economic power even if they are salaried employees (Weber & Parsons 1964).
Popular Culture and Capitalism
The essay will apply the two of the two theorists, Karl Marx and Max Weber to a social problem of capitalism. Specifically, it will focus on how capitalism dictates what is popular culture and how popular culture then supports capitalism. An ideology is constructed belief system which is then embedded in the consciousness of the public through the media (Marx & Kamenka 1983). The information from the media to the world usually in support of the dominant ideology such as capitalism.
The dominant ideology the essay will discuss is capitalism which is capital production and surplus value consumption as a life goal. Marx & Caute (1967) indicated that Marxism is a socio-political and economic world view that contains political ideology within it for how to improve and change society by socialism implementation. Marx believed that in class struggles, social change takes place because of the struggles between different classes in a society who are competing constantly to improve their conditions. The analysis of Marxism leads to the conclusion that capitalism of workers, the dominant economic management form currently (proletariat), leads to the proletariat oppression who spend their lives working for the bourgeoisie benefit and also makes up the majority of the world population (Marx & Kamenka 1983).
Despite the fact, Marx lived a long time ago, before the emergence of the mass media of today, his ideas has helped in understanding the media theory.in the view of Marx, all cultural and social institutions such as the education system, family, the legal system and the mass media (newspaper during Marx time), are shaped by society’s economic basis. Therefore, it is significant to understand the economic sphere and the role being played by the mass media. This simply means that society should know more about capitalism (Marx & Caute 1967).
The first class system being dictated by capitalism is class systems, which later supports capitalism. According to Marx & Kamenka (1983), in capitalist economies, the bourgeoisie or the ruling class own the capital or the money to invest in machinery, factories, offices, land and new technology and in everything necessary in wealth production. However, the only thing the ruling class lack is labor that is sufficient to make products and services that are profitable. However, the second group (proletariat) which is the largest in the society owns the labor and they sell it to survive either intellectually or manually. Marx & Caute (1967) stated that however little or much the larger group in the society are paid for their labor, at all times there must be a margin of profit so that the workers true value is not returned to them. This is the reason why Marxists saw the conflict between the two classes in the material interests (Marx & Caute 1967).the capitalist class wants to pay for the labor as little as possible, while it is in the working class interest to have a full value for their hired labor.
The second culture is false consciousness which capitalism dictates and which in turn supports capitalism. According to Marx & Kamenka (1983), social institutions such as the mass media play a central role in ensuring that the working class in their situation remain happy despite the systems inherent unfairness. Marx gave the situation a description in which subordinate classes members cannot see that the ruling class is duping them as “false consciousness” ( Marx & Kamenka 1983). In the words of Marx, “the ideology can be identified ultimately as the misinformation, deceptions, and lies of the working class in order to maintain false consciousness state.”
Applying the sociological theory and ideology of Max Weber to the mass media today, they will argue that the mass media institutions are owned by the ruling class in the society. Moreover, these institutions are used in indoctrinating the masses into believing that to all people capitalism is good (Weber & Parsons 1964). The workers of the media industry are exploited similar to other worker, hence, the existence of the mass media is to serve the ruling class ideological interests.
Weber & Kalberg (2005) defined hegemony as the way in which the people in power continue maintaining control. Similarly, ideologies that are dominant are considered hegemonic. In society, power is maintained by creating ideologies that are then promoted by the mass media. Some of the hegemonic cultural innovations in advanced industrial societies include the mass media, compulsory schooling, and the false culture indoctrinating workers to false consciousness. Weber & Parsons (1964) explained that cultural hegemony is the sociological and philosophical concept that a society which is culturally diversified can be dominated or be ruled by one of the social classes. It is one social group dominance over the other for instance, the ruling class over the others. Max Weber in his class theory claimed that the ruling class ideas are seen as the norm, as universal ideologies and even perceived to be beneficial to everyone while, in reality, it only benefits the ruling class.
According to Weber & Kalberg (2005), hegemony more often tends to refer to a single group power in society to lead essentially and to dictate other societal groups. This can be achieved through communications, through leaders of government and through voter’s influence. Similarly, a single country can be regarded as a hegemony if it has the power enough to influence the behavior of other countries. Weber & Parsons (1964) explained that the controls that other hegemonies such as the 19th century British Empire had an influence over other countries in an extra ordinary manner. The total or partial control of other countries was obtained either through control of trade industries, and show of military force. Hegemony existing in a single country indicates that the most influential and dominant group often influences the policies to the greatest advantage of the dominant country or group. For instance, when it comes to tax laws, the wealthy have hegemony in the United States (Weber & Kalberg 2005).
According to Weber, the dominant ideas are the ruling class ideas in a society. This is because the ruling class membership allows access to leisure and education for one to be immersed in a cultures expression. Moreover, it is the capitalists that control the media through control means of mass productions and their dissemination (printing press, TV stations, art galleries, satellites), or through outright ownership. For instance, the biggest retailer in United States, Walmart, mas a significant impact on the popular culture by dictating the products and services it will stock or not stock. This forces the artists to tailor their creativity towards what Wal Mart will accept (Weber & Kalberg 2005).
Conclusion
In conclusion, the essay discussed classical sociological theories of Karl Marx and Max Weber. Specifically the essay focused on the class theories by Karl Max and the class theory by Max Weber. Based on Karl Marx, the class theory depicts a society divided into social classes which are in conflict in pursuit of different interests. On the other hand, class theory by Max Weber differed slightly with Karl Max. He claims in his theory that men have specific causal component in common of their life chances as far as this component is exclusively represented by economic interests in the good possession and income opportunities, and it is represented under commodity’s conditions or labor market. Lastly, the essay applied the two theories to a social problem of capitalism where t focused on how capitalism dictates what is popular culture and how popular culture then supports capitalism
References
Marx, K., & In Caute, D. (1967). Essential writings of Karl Marx. New York: Macmillan.
Marx, K., & Kamenka, E. (1983). The portable Karl Marx. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books.
Weber, M., & Kalberg, S. (2005). Max Weber: Readings and commentary on modernity. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub.
Weber, M., & Parsons, T. (1964). The theory of social and economic organization. New York: Free Press.
With a student-centered approach, I create engaging and informative blog posts that tackle relevant topics for students. My content aims to equip students with the knowledge and tools they need to succeed academically and beyond.
