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Comparing Creation Theories: Biblical, Darwinian, Mayan, and Inuit Perspectives

by | Jun 13, 2023 | Essays | 0 comments

Biblical Creation Theory

The first lines in the first section of the bible states that “in the beginning God create heaven and earth” this means that the earth had no form, it was full of darkness and it dint contain anything. After that event, God continued to create different things day by day as according to Carlson, Richard and Tremper (25) as explained below in details;

 

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First Day: God created light and light was separated from darkness that occurs at different time of the day.

Second Day: God created the universe that separated water and sky.

Third day: God created the earth and the sea and later on the same day God created plants and animals to live in. the earth is the dry land where plants can grow and animals can either live in waters or on the land.

Fourth day: God made moon, sun, stars and other objects in the skies that are important in providing light and influencing climatic conditions necessary for the existence of animal and plants created in the second day. Also, these items were used to signify the beginning or the ending of seasons such as daytime, nighttime, month and years.  Climatic condition can also be influenced by items create in fourth day such as hotness, cold, windy, rainy seasons that have major impact of land and water (Carlson, Richard F & Tremper, 33)

On the fifth day: God created creatures for filling the sky and water. They include winged birds and aquatic animals.

On the sixth day, God made animals that were to exist on the land and later made human being to rule over these animals. Human being was the man and a woman who were called Adam and Eve. While creating a human being, God ensured that they have resembled him and gave then more knowledge and powers to do things than all the other animals.

On the last day God rested having finished creating things and this day God made it holly. In this day, God rested and resting portrays the need for refreshing that every human being requires for the sake of relieving our inner self from effects of stress, strain, tiredness and other aspects in social lives (Carlson and Longman, 42).

In the begin chapters of the bible, the genesis 1st, the book give two characters who include, the man and God who represents the biblical drama. God is the centre-stage while the main theme is to portray a divine love biblically whereby, God create all other things separately and offers his love to a human being by assigning then to him and to take control over them. Similarly, genesis 1 is showing God as the author of creation and creation theory being a Devine drama, the drama can then be comprehended by beliefs of an individual. When reading this chapter, one tends to ask him/herself, how? When? Where? Did all that happen? Answer to these questions will remain mysterious to the audience but the main gain to the audience is the faith enrichment.

Accordingly, Carlson & Longman (56) states that at the end of creation, God rested and was thankful to all the work he did and considered it as “Good”. It is for this reason that despite all the challenges individuals face everyone will remain part of Gods creations that is so great to him. Creation story teaches us that after God accomplished his work he praised and enjoyed about it, therefore our work is the sources of our daily living and we should be proud about it. The interrelation of faith and reason might provide us with an alternative way of approaching the individual categories of faith and reason. The major claim of this biblical concept is that they both play a part in understanding God and Scripture (Carlson & Longman, 62). To elaborate on this a little bit more, this concept also means that we all have to place our faith in some authority (in a religious context: God or Scriptures) as the basis for how we think and do. However, we should not be satisfied with simply resting on an authority, but we should seek to understand the authority in which we have placed our faith.  In other words, we should not just believe, but we should seek to understand why and what we believe. The driving idea behind this concept is the complete association between Gods creations and the work of mankind (Carlson & Longman, 71).

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

According to Francis (118) Darwin’s theory believes in of biological evolutions is based on notion that live evolved from common ancestors but from different species. The theory assumes that, simples creatures have been changing over long period of time to give simple creatures that exists today. Darwin theory presumes that natural evolutions occur to nonliving thing and over years for living things. For instance, according to Darwin, Man originated from an animal that through environmental facture, its changes gradually over years until it formed mankind.

Mayan Creation Theories

Mayan creation theory tells that there were two Gods who made the world and include Tepeu the Maker and Gucumatz the Feathered Spirit. These two Gods met in the darkness and decided to create the world through imaginations. Anything they could think about in their imaginations came to being an exhausting all imaginations the world way create and complete with everything.  Animals were also created and later decided to man a mankind that was created after a number of attempts. Previous attempts to make a mankind lacked simple skills that made them be destroyed while others disappeared in the woods and became monkeys (Kaku, 109).

This theory of creation is based on assumption of events and thing. Mayan creation theories can be based on historical facts and it does not show the true origin of events or mankind. The theory can be assumed to be imaginative story that it full of facts but no evidence. These facts are similar to biblical creation theories in the way they occur and the time that are created at different events (Kaku, 121).

4. INUIT Theories

According to the theory, the world existed and was empty and silent. The theory is sources from “Raven” that made the waters with beats of his wings. Accordingly, man existed but had no knowledge of survival or the ability to do anything. The “Raven” being the main character that changed the man nature by offering whatever it was asked. Every creation was done in different days as man asked from the Raven. Therefore, most creations including animals, plants and other beings were made through man desire for then and from the powers of the raven.

Different theories have been the sources of many myths found amongst mankind from different backgrounds and the key driver to the formation of different religions. Mythical dimensions are symbolic influences to cultures, religious conflicts, politics, social esteem, natural or scientific ideas and the formation of laws amongst modern society.

References

Carlson, Richard F, and Tremper Longman. Science, Creation And The Bible. 1st ed. Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Academic, 2010. Print.

Francis, Keith. Charles Darwin and The Origin Of Species. 1st ed. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2007. Print.

Kaku, Michio. Parallel Worlds. 1st ed. New York: Doubleday, 2005. Print.

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Exploring the Evolution of English Language Variations and Ideologies

by | Jun 13, 2023 | Essays | 0 comments

Ideologies over time in the use of English

During the early years, English seemed like a language that was only necessary for terms of ensuring and giving the ability to simply communicate with others. There was little application of formality and since the language was spoken from early years, it seemed unnecessary to master intricacies such as the use of verbs and nouns that structure the language. Lombardi (2008) and Smiljanic and Bradlaw (2008) state that, for native speakers, the difficulty is in understanding that there is a formal style to any language which they have to learn and master through education and training, despite speaking and making use of the language for many years.

 

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Different styles over time

I am an Arabic speaker, therefore unlike many of my classmates, I was born with and have interacted with the Arabic language for most of my life. In the early years of my life, my attitude towards the use of language would definitely be considered informal. Informal attitudes are where the Arabic language is applied spontaneously without any second thought to how the words are put together. The use of dialect and structure are not put into serious consideration. According to Kwa (2011), majority of the English speakers make use of the language informally without a second thought. I have found that my early interaction with the English language made heavy use of verbs and passive sentence construction. However, in later years, due mainly to the influence of education and the demands placed by assignments and papers where the structure is vital. There are requirements to putting much more thought into the use of English. In effect, as I have grown older English mastery has become quite similar to the mastery of other foreign languages. Vocabulary and use of various forms of the structure have become not only vital but indeed quite necessary if the use of the language is to be as effective as is expected of a native speaker.

Use of the different styles

It is important to note that whereas, I may lean more to the formal English language style, there are several cases where I have applied various other forms of the language, which is mostly dependent on when and to whom am applying the language. While with my age mates, classmates, and friends, formal English seems more pretentious and boisterous than I would prefer. Because of this being drawn into the colloquial language style, where my sentences become much shorter and I make use of clipped words. This allows faster communication and quicker completion of information. According to Rissanen et al. (2011), colloquial language style is one which allows us to seem quite intimate with the person to whom we are speaking to. On the other hand, presenting a paper, or attending an interview requires a more formal presentation of the same language. One is not easily forgiven for turning to less formal styles of English. Similarly, commonly with family, I may revolve more around my native speech thus the more informal state of the language. These are dialects that come naturally due to the nature of how I mastered, learned, and interacted with the language in the early formative years of my life. Whereas many individuals turn to slang in their native language, I tend to refer more to the informal use of the language. Slang is not only difficult to master, it often completely moves out of the true foundations of English and its vocabularies.

Use of English by others

Many times, I do not take issue with how the English language is spoken by others. However, due to the first interaction with the language, I find it difficult to understand the use of slang. Typically slang sounds like a completely new language which should be not be found within the confines of the English language. However, as shown by Hsu (2017), despite my native speech I often appreciate the difficulties that other non-English speaking individuals face when encountering the English language and learning its structures. While I have been an English speaker for all of my life, I am still learning the intricacies of the structure and vocabularies of the language. Yet, there are many more who have not interacted with English until it was formerly taught. For them, change in style and use of the language may be quite difficult. They may not be able to master the different forms of the language which in turn means that they are stuck with one form of the language. Mastering both formal and slang for example seems like an uphill task for them. I, therefore, find that often I make excuses for their shortcomings and attempt to understand their background before unnecessarily and continuously correcting them for how they make use of the language. It is important to note however that where native speakers are concerned, there is little patience to be had for the misuse of the language. For them, there is a higher demand for linguistic correctness and social correctness in the use and application of the language.

References

Hsu, T. C. (2017). Learning English with augmented reality: Do learning styles matter?. Computers & Education, 106, 137-149.

Kwa, C. (2011). Styles of Knowing: A new history of science from ancient times to the present. The University of Pittsburgh Pre.

Lombardi, J. (2008). Beyond learning styles: Brain-based research and English language learners. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues, and Ideas, 81(5), 219-222.

Rissanen, M., Kytö, M., & Heikkonen, K. (Eds.). (2011). English in transition: Corpus-based studies in linguistic variation and genre styles (Vol. 23). Walter de Gruyter.

Smiljanic, R., & Bradlow, A. R. (2008). Stability of temporal contrasts across speaking styles in English and Croatian. Journal of Phonetics, 36(1), 91-113.

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Classical Political Thought in Ancient Greece and Rome

by | Jun 13, 2023 | Essays | 0 comments

Classical Greek philosophy is seen as the cradle and basis of Western culture and civilization (Saunders 7). It looked similar to commonwealth society whereby life and habitat were shared and religion was not practiced. According to Saunders, a state is seen as an institution for the personal and moral growth of a person (8). Man is seen to be an independent citizen of society and equality as well as opportunities and rights was present. For instance, many city-states practiced forms of government such as aristocracy, monarchy, and democracy. An ethical society was strongly believed in and thus a person’s life was expected o be ethical (Reeve et.al. 12). The main objective was human welfare and a great emphasis was placed on education to build an ideal state. The Greek philosophers greatly aimed for a co-existence among people of various classes. Some features of the Greek city-states include: they were administered; they were at the same time churches, were self-sufficient and self-governed, and were educational, ethical, and political. The Greeks had the law great importance as it is the dispassionate reason-unbiased and objective. They had a belief that law is necessary for the enhancement of the well-being of the citizen. Justice is viewed as a virtue in action. Justice is viewed to enable an individual to discharge his responsibilities towards the growth of human personality.

 

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According to Plato and Aristotle, justice is willful obedience to the laws of the state. The representative system was not believed by the Greeks (Hackney 18). Slaves, the old, and in some city-states, women (even working classes) were not allowed to take part or have citizenship as it was viewed they could not attain the responsibilities towards the state. Aristotle argued for a mixed constitution after doing surveys of 158 constitutions. Hackney indicates that their conception of government is symptomatic of the class-based authority—aristocracy. On the other hand, Roan reflects changes in socio-economic and political-legal life (22).

Ancient Roman political thought concerned power, the state, and politics as a whole. Citizenship tended to vary significantly as a full citizen had the ability and was allowed to vote, practice commerce as well as marry freeborn persons (Reeve et.al. 36). Some of the citizens were denied to vote as well as hold any public office however they maintained their other rights. The third citizen type could vote as well as practice commerce, however, they were unable to hold any office or even marry the freeborn women. During the late Republic became full citizens as freedom was granted to them. Reeve et.al. Stated that around the year 90 B.C.E., the non-Roman allies got citizenship rights, and by the year 212 B.C.E, living under the Edict of Caracalla, enabling all the free individuals within the Roman Empire became citizens (35). The wealthy ruled during the earlier Roman Republic and were known as patricians.

However, the Romans emperors mainly focused on expanding their empire than dealing with political philosophy. Rome gave the world materials for political theory but not the political theory itself. Their major preoccupation was jurisprudence and law. They secularized the legal system to establish a well-ordered empire; while Greeks based it on ethics and religion. This attitude of Romans laid the basis for many political ideas of America and Western Europe. Through Romans, sovereignty emerged, and thus people obeyed it as it was a command of the highest political authority not because it was ethical or religious. Failure to obey it led to punishment. Romans thus derived the idea of legal rights and contributed to the separation between state and individual. To finalize they also brought about certain principles of jus gentium to establish legal authority on foreigners and they gave natural law importance.

Works Cited

Hackney, John. A History of Greek and Roman Philosophy. New York: Philosophical Library, 1966. Internet resource.

Reeve, C D. C, Patrick L. Miller, Lloyd P. Gerson, and Brian Rak. Introductory Readings in Ancient Greek and Roman Philosophy. , 2015. Internet resource.

Saunders, Jason L. Greek and Roman Philosophy After Aristotle. New York [u.a.: Free Press, 1997. Print.

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Exploring Phonological Differences between English and Arabic

by | Jun 13, 2023 | Essays | 0 comments

PART A

Comparison of Phonology of English and Arabic

1. Stress

Stress is defined as the relative prominence given to specific words in a phrase and specific syllables in words. According to Halliday (1970), there are three-word levels of stress in the Arabic language. These include the primary, the secondary, and the weak levels. Swan and smith (2001) pointed out that stress in the Arabic language is regular and predictable. This means that an individual can determine and predict the stress of the words in Arabic. Furthermore, Swan and Smith (2001) asserted that the learners of Arabic often face difficulties in predicting stress in the English language, specifically in the stress of the word. The difficulty in word stress grasping in English may lead to changing of the word meaning. For example, a learner may try to pronounce the verb “convict” like the noun “convict” where the position of stress is different completely. Aiken & Pearce (1993) summarized the stress of Arabic in the following way:

  1. If a word has a super heavy syllable or even more, the stress falls on, as in the super heavy syllable
  2. If a word has light and heavy syllables, the stress falls on the heavy syllable just before the final syllable s in (non-final heavy syllable).
  3. If a word has light syllables, the stress falls as in, on the first syllable
  4. If a word is a past or present verb, the stress falls as in on the first syllable
  5. If a word is a feminine or masculine Arabic noun, the stress falls as in, on the second syllable

Jenkins (2003) suggested that just like the Arabic language, the words of English are also predictable, and many sets of rules that are complex have been put forward for stress prediction. In English, stress is very important as it is the main feature that distinguishes certain word pairs. According to The New Englishness 13 Nation & Newton (2009), English has the following rules of stress:

  1. The majority of the two-syllable words, on the first syllable, are where stress is placed. For example, many words have two different patterns of stress according to whether they are nouns or verbs, verbs or adjectives. For instance, the first syllable of adjectives and nouns are where stressing is done, while on the verbs, the second syllable is where stress is given.
  2. Derivational suffixes can be categorized into three types; that is stress-shifting, stress attracting, and stress preserving. Stress preserving suffixes does not change the placement of stress in words. For example “–full,” such as wonder changes to “wonderful.” moreover, the stress attracting type gets primary stress. For example, “-ee,” such as, employ becomes “employee.” Lastly, the stress shifting type makes the stress shift. For example “-ive,” such as reflex becomes “reflexive” (Pennington 1996).

 

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2. Rhythm

Rhythm, in speech, is defined as an effect that involves isochronous recurrence of some form of speech unit. Rhythm is also the regular recurrence in a speech of the stressed syllables (Celce-Murcia, Brinton, Griner. 2010). Yavas (2006) argued that the perception of various forms of rhythm has majorly to do with the syllable structure differences, type of stress, and the vowel reduction. According to Couper (2006, p.47), Arabic and its different dialects are stress-timed all. From the different articles and studies, there is a consensus amongst writers and researchers that the listeners of Arabic make use of the rhythm of speech in distinguishing Arabic speakers from North Africa and the ones living in the Middle East. Numerous studies have been conducted on the rhythm of Arabic. Dauer (2005, p.544) observed that one of the significant findings is the vocalic intervals highness, in the dialects of the eastern Arabs like Palestine, unlike the western dialects of the Arabs such as Tunisia.

In the English language, the alternation of unstressed and stressed syllables is actually stress-timed. Derwing (2008) asserted that rhythm is very important in English basically because many instances of miscommunication are attributed to the failure of a person to interpret words that are familiar as they are uttered with an unfamiliar rhythm pattern. As discussed earlier, words of English may contain one or several syllables. These words have stressed syllables that are clearer, louder than the unstressed others. Hansen & Zampini (2008, p.352) believed that combining of the stressed and unstressed syllables will result in the rhythms that are found in the words of English. This combination also brings out the pitch, length, and strength of syllables. Furthermore, English sentences, just like words also have rhythm. Halliday (1970) stated that if a person wants to get a good rhythm of the sentence, he or she should know how to join together the syllables into bigger units, in addition to the clear difference between unstressed and stressed syllables.

3. Intonation

Yates & Zielinski (2009) indicated that the definition of intonation is difficult. However, in general, intonation is the speech melody or the falling and rising of the pitch of voice in the conversation, and its analysis should be in terms of pitch variation. Intonation can point out different utterances types, such as questions, statements, attitudes commands, and the speaker’s emotions. Swan and smith (2001) indicated that English and Arabic have closely similar intonation patterns, especially in contour and meaning. Ashby (2005) summarized the stress of Arabic in the following way:

  1. Falling intonation, in Arabic, is used at the end of the declarative statements and in commands. In declarative statements is when it is on amid pitch, the voice starts, slightly rises on the syllable lastly stressed, and drops at the end to a low pitch as in. in command is when it is in the “Wh- questions.” That is the voice is high in the syllables stressed and quickly falls to the mid-pitch as in for the remaining part of the sentence.
  2. In Arabic, the rising-falling intonation is used normally at the end of the “yes-no questions as in,” and in the “vocatives as in.” In the yes-no questions, they are used in utterances that contain protest elements and surprise elements. That is the voice is flat and there is no fall or rise as in. in the vocatives, on the other hand, they are used in requests and the voice somewhat falls and rises, with as in optional pause.

Yavas (20011) summarized the rules of intonations in English in the following manner:

  1. Rising and falling intonation is usually used at the end of simple facts statements, which is the declarative statement. For example, commands or questions that begin with interrogative words.
  2. Rising intonations are usually used in the following scenarios; for instance, at the end of the yes-no questions such as requests.
  3. In utterances that contain an element of surprise or protest

PART B:

Learners Profile

I am a teacher who teaches English to 20 to 30 young SaudiArabia boys aged 13 to 15 years as their foreign language or second language. Some of my students study in private schools that use English as their mode of teaching. Other students also study in international schools which belong to people who work in Saudi Arabia and are from other overseas countries. In Saudi Arabia, there are special institutions that teach English in detail. This means different aspects of English are taught and they also develop a positive attitude to learning the English language.

My students learn English only in school but they do not use it at home or in the streets because they lack English speakers whom they can converse or talk with since the local language is Arabic. However, the slight chances of speaking English are in some hospitals and also in some restaurants, but not from the natives. Similarly, other places where an individual can hear or speak English are in the institutions of higher learning such as the universities, and some companies that use English as their mode of communication. These are mostly international companies and use a policy that English is the mode of communication in the company.

These multinational companies, often give scholarships to their employees who are interested in learning English or developing their jobs to enhance their personalities. Moreover, learning English enables them to develop intellectually and in their professional abilities.

As a teacher, I am entitled to teach my students to:

  1. Learn the English language basics that would form the foundation of the mastery of the language in future
  2. Learn the basic structures of the English sentences
  3. Learn and understand the vocabularies that are recommended to every stage of learning
  4. listen and understand the simple language of English
  5. Orally express themselves using the simple language of English
  6. Read and understand the materials of simple English language
  7. Write simple guided sentences in the language of English

SECTION C

Evaluation of Resources

The essay will evaluate two online resources for teaching prosody to ESL/EFL learners. The resources include the Classical Arab Language and an online video resource.

1.Arab Linguistics: an Introductory Classical Text with Translation and Notes

This resource has been written in both English and Arabic languages. This makes it beneficial to both the learners and the teacher who is teaching English to the Saudi Arabic students. The resource is also beneficial for learning since it uses simple English and Arabic languages that are suitable for beginners. However, some of the limitations of the resource are that it does not detail all aspects of the prosody, thus it is limiting in terms of information.

Some of the elements of prosody that have been presented in this online learning resource include the accent and stress. The other elements have not been included, Stress and accent are very relevant in teaching English to the Saudi Arabic student especially to the young ones. The accent is important to the learners and the teachers because it is impossible to know where stress should be placed on a syllable in a word, and it becomes even more complicated in the English language since the stress can fall on any syllable (ShirbīNī & Carter 2014).

Although the resource has been written and explained in continuous prose, the language is realistic, simple, and easy to comprehend. The resource has also allowed the students to read, listen to the teacher, practice, receive feedback, and to make pronunciation communicatively. This has been enabled by the provision of clear guidelines with examples. This has simplified pronunciation for the students if they practice and also listen to the pronunciations.

Similarly, the resource by ShirbīNī & Carter (2014) has enhanced learning by making the prosody elements have different presentations. The resource has also used tables to present some data to the learners and also to make comparisons between the two languages. Lastly, after going through the guidelines, practicing, there are few exercises for the learner to do and get feedback on their progress and mastery of the two languages. This is good for the students and also for the teachers as it enables the learners to gauges their level of understanding and also makes the teachers know the progress of their students.

2. The Arabic guide to Standard English

This is an audiovisual resource that explains in Arabic and English. The audio and the visual video is helpful to the learners as it explains the English words to Arabic words. The elements of prosody that have been included in this online visual resource are rhythm, stress, and intonation.

The online visual resource has many benefits to the learner as well as the teacher. Some of the benefits it has to the learners are that it gives the visual pictures of objects and name them audibly in English. This is very beneficial to the learners as they learn to understand how to pronounce some English words and also where stress should be put in an English word. The resource also gives the sound that is required when teaching students ESL especially young Saudi Arabia boys. However, online video resource has some limitations. First, the video takes only seven minutes and also has limited resources that will equip a learning student. Averagely a lesson should go for 40minutes to 1 hour and therefore a resource of 7 minutes is limiting to the students (n.a 2014).

The presentation also contains new vocabulary for the students of my class. It shows new words in the lesson with their meaning in English. Similarly, there are new grammar items for the visual lesson, new idioms, phrasal verbs, proverbs, and expressions. Lastly, the resource provided drills and practice for my students. This step is intended to reinforce the items the teacher has explained. The drills are in form of exercises, and there are also some exercises given to the students as part of their homework for them to apply what they have learned at school. The prosody elements that were presented were relevant and also comprehensible to young Saudi boys’ learners. The language used by the presenter is appropriate, realistic, easy, and simple to understand by young learners of English. The video has used a monologue form of presentation where the presenter shows different words, pronounce and also explain some. Additionally, visual support has been provided to the learner and these include; word spellings, visual objects, tables,s and the moving cursors that point and directs learners to objects and words for easy understanding.

This material by n.a (2014) gives the students many opportunities to listen, to practice, and also to get feedback. The audio part of the video is there for the students to listen and hear the words clearly and to comprehend. The students can also practice the words since the video can be rewound and forwarded. The feedback part is left for the teacher since it has exercises for the practice of the students. Lastly, the presentation of the video is made in a manner that is appropriate in pronunciation in a communicative manner.

References

Aiken, G. & Pearce, M. 1993, The sounds of English, Blackfriars Press, Sydney.

Ashby, P. 2005, Speech sounds, 2nd edn, Routledge, London.

Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D. M., with Griner, B. D. 2010, Teaching pronunciation: A course book and reference guide, 2nd edn, Cambridge University Press, New York.

Couper, G. 2006, ‘The short and long-term effects of pronunciation instruction’, Prospect, vol. 21 no. 1, pp. 46-66.

Dauer, R. G. 2005, ‘The Lingua Franca Core: A new model for pronunciation instruction?’, TESOL Quarterly, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 543-550.

De Jong, K, &Zawaydeh, B. A. 1999, ‘Stress, duration, and intonation in Arabic word-level prosody’, Journal of Phonetics, Volume 27(1), pp. 3-22

Derwing, T. 2008, ‘Curriculum issues in teaching pronunciation to second language learners’, in J. G.

Halliday, M. A. K. 1970, A course in spoken English: Intonation, Oxford University Press, Oxford. (a) Tone (b) The meaning of tones [CD tracks 48-64]

Halliday, M. A. K. 1985, Spoken and written language, Deakin University Press, Geelong, VIC.1

Hansen Edwards & M. L. Zampini (eds).2008, Phonology and second language acquisition, John Benjamins, Amsterdam, pp. 347-369.  <http://public.eblib.com/EBLPublic/PublicView.do?ptiID=622973>

Jenkins, J. 2002, ‘A sociolinguistically based, empirically researched pronunciation syllabus for English as an International Language’, Applied Linguistics, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 83-103. 12

Jenkins, J. 2003, World Englishes: A resource book for students, Routledge, London.

2014 The Arabic guide to Standard English. New York. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nvMCXy4bmC0>

Pennington, M. 1996, Phonology in English language teaching: An international approach, Longman, London. (a) Regional and social variation

Rogerson-Revell, P. 2011, English phonology, and pronunciation teaching, Continuum, London.

ShirbīNī, M. I. A., & Carter, M. G. 2014, Arab linguistics an introductory classical text with translation and notes. Amsterdam, J. Benjamins. <http://arabiclanguage.zxq.net/accent_and_stress.html>

Smith, B. 2001, ‘Arabic speakers’, in M. Swan & B. Smith (eds), Learner English: A teacher’s guide to interference and other problems, 2nd edn, Cambridge university press, Cambridge, pp. 195-213.

Swan, M., & Smith, B. 2001, Learner English: a teacher’s guide to interference and other problems. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire], Cambridge University Press.

Tench, P. 1996, The intonation system of English, Cassell, London.

The New Englishes 13 Nation, I. S. P. & Newton, J. 2009, Teaching ESL/EFL listening and speaking, Routledge, New York. 14

Watson, J.C. 2007, The phonology and morphology of Arabic, Oxford university press, Oxford.

Yates, L., & Zielinski, B. 2009, Give it a go: Teaching pronunciation to adults, Continuum, Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP) Research Centre, Macquarie University, pp. 120-123.

Yavas, M. 2006, Applied English Phonology, Blackwell Publishing, Malden.

 
5/5 - (4 votes)

Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) Therapies for Autism

by | Jun 12, 2023 | Essays | 0 comments

Although AAT is beneficial to an autistic child, Complementary and alternative medicine is also beneficial. The Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) method of treatment are extensively often used in promotion of health, as adjuncts to the conventional medication treatment. Kayne & Kayne (2009) defined CAM as diverse products and practices, healthcare and medical systems, that are not considered part, generally as conventional medicine. The parents use CAM often in the care of the children who suffer from the Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Typically in most cases in combination with the conventional medical treatments. This practice Loo (2009) labeled it as integrative medicine. National Health Interview Survey (U.S.) & National Center for Health Statistics (U.S.) (2004) pointed out that the data from National Health Interview Survey indicated that 12% of the US children and 38.3% of the US adults use CAM. This was further confirmed by the higher figures of the 2008 review which showed higher rates, with 20%-40% of the children using CAM. Rosen & Riley (2007) observed that the use of CAM among the children and adults is higher for those that have chronic health conditions. Similarly, among the families that has representation in the Interactive Autism Network, approximately more than half of the youths and the children who suffer from ASD get supplements. Moreover, Kurtz (2008) argued that the families who decide to use CAM for their children who suffer from ASD report 7 CAM therapies averagely.

 

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Research on the benefits and safety of CAM also referred to as integrated medicine, has been minimal compared to other traditional treatments. For this reason of lack of may detailed and extensive studies, many health care providers and physicians often find it difficult to give advice to the families who make an inquiry about the CAM treatments. According to Kayne & Kayne (2009), many CAM therapies are applied in children and are categorized into four domains, that is: biological based practices, mind body medicine, energy medicine and body based and manipulative practices. The most common therapies used in CAM in the treatments of ASD fall in the body-based and manipulative practices and biological based practice.

Why and who uses CAM therapies

Conventional medicine is mostly used in diagnosis, treatment and cure of diseases, while CAM promote health and incorporate the patient in the process of healing that ultimately address the interpreted underlying cause of illness by the practitioner. According to Loo (2009), the reasons CAM is used by families is because of the conventional medication’s adverse effects, more medical visits, more medication , and worse symptoms control from the conventional medication. CAM therapies bring about satisfaction, resolve symptoms successfully, and have no side effects.

CAM therapies

According to Siegel (2003) all treatments are supposed to be based on evidenced based medicine principles. Clinical expertise integration, family (patient) values and efficacy evidence. Aarons & Gittens (1999) pointed out that many parents tend to do research on their own, including comparing notes with other individuals or parents. However, he cautions that an experience of another person is not similar to evidence from a study carefully designed and conducted. Moreover, because autism incorporates group of disorders that are complex, some treatments may not work with another person but work well with the next person. The same sentiments are echoed by Simkin & Popper (2012) who emphasize that the CAM therapies should complement and not replace the proven behavioral treatments for the core symptoms of autism, or effective and safe medications for the associated medical conditions. Some of the safest and researched therapies suitable for ASD, grouped according to their domains include:

Mind body medicine

Yoga

Yoga as a non pharmacological technique decreases anxiety and is liked by clinicians and families. This mind-body approach increases the sense of control and well being and has potential of decreasing anxiety. This relaxation therapy helps children n the psychiatry service and those who are mentally retarded. However, there exists no studies that have been conducted on the autism symptoms to the yoga techniques response (Kayne & Kayne, 2009).

Music therapy

Loo (2009) indicated that music has been frequently applied to reinforce communication in the educational interventions. Application of music in a therapeutic format that is discrete to enhance communication development and social skill in children with autism, has been studied in pilot studies with the potential for beneficial effects on gestural and spoken communication

Biological based practices

Dietary supplements

B6/Mg++

The vitamins supplements have been used for many years for improving the symptoms of the mental disorders, with magnesium and B6 being popular for autism treatment (Murza et al (2010, p.115). However, the supplements have not been used because of minimal studies, small sample sizes and methodological deficits therefore making it difficult to conduct meta-analysis. Some of the notable studies are the one conducted by Murza et al (2010, p.117) who reported social quotient and IQ improvements in 8 children who were treated with Mg++ and B6.

Melatonin

Shaw & Rimland (2002) noted that more than half of the children who suffers from ASD struggle with the sleeping disorders, with insomnia being the most prevalent. Similarly, issues of sleep affects also many adults and adolescents with autism. Although in these age groups the prevalence is unknown yet. Melatonin is a hormone that naturally occurs and helps in regulating the sleep-wake cycle. Shaw & Rimland (2002) asserted that supplements also have been found to assist in improving sleep and reducing insomnia in children suffering from autism.
In a pilot study conducted by Dr. Beth Mallow in Vanderbilt University medical School, the results indicated that a dose per night helps the children with insomnia and autism fall asleep. Among the 24 children aged 3-9 years under study, who completed the experimental treatment for 14 weeks only differed in the dosage required for them to fall asleep. However, in all the cases, a regimen of melatonin per night of about 1-6mg assisted with the onset of sleep with one week. Moreover, the benefits lasted for the whole study period, with no diverse side effects. The parents also noticed improvements in the daytime behavior of their children, and reduction of stress levels amongst themselves.
According to Kayne & Kayne (2009), disordered sleep can worsen the symptoms of autism such as social difficulties and repetitive behaviors. Additionally, other care givers and parents report that insomnia that is associated with autism can take a toll on the whole household. Dr. Beth Malow cautions that individuals or families that deal with insomnia that is associated with autism should consult a physician first, instead of trying melatonin. This is because sleep disturbances are caused by several factors and therefore, it is of great importance to identify first and treat the underlying medical conditions.

Omega-3 fatty acids

They are crucial for the development of brain and cannot also be manufactured in the body. However, dietary consumption of omega-3 fatty acids occurs through consumption of fish oils or fish. Rosen & Riley (2007) indicated that the oral supplements with fatty acids of late have become very popular for the children with differences in development including autism. Several researches have indicated that omega 3 fatty acids supplements may help in reducing symptoms that are related to autism such as hyperactivity, repetitive behavior, in addition to improving socialization. For instance Kurtz (2008), pointed out a pilot study in 2001 which enrolled 27 children diagnosed with hyperactivity and ASD, aged between 3 to 8 years. Some children were given in their pudding cup, 1.3 grams of omega- 3 fatty acids daily, while other children were given pudding without the omega 3 fatty acid supplement. After 12 weeks, the children who received the omega 3 fatty acids improved significantly on hyperactivity on a validated measure. They showed an improvement of about 2.7 on the Aberrant Behavior Checklist.
In summary, as providers of healthcare are looking forward increasingly toward the evidence for the conventional medical practices, much focus should be placed on examining the evidence for the practice of CAM that patients may be using. Furthermore, much encouragement should be done to families to share the interventions that they may be pursuing, whether or not endorsed or prescribed, by the conventional practice. This is significant for the monitoring of the health side effects, and for the potential of interactions of drugs. Some practices of CAM have emerging evidences to support their continual use in the traditional medical practice.such as melatonin.howver, most treatements have not been studied adequately, and therefore lack evidence to support them.although it is not because of the direct effect of the CAM practices, side effects that are undesired may relate to the discontinuation or delay of otherwise effective treatments.

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