Abstract
Women have suffered a lot in many years, as they have lagged in every vital aspect of society especially regarding politics. The world including women themselves has normalized the notion that made do better in politics and this is often witnessed during a political contest where a woman is evaluated differently from when with the community naturally setting the bar to be so high. The study explores the socio-economical issues, cultural well as religious issues that greatly contribute to the less representation of women in key political offices around the globe.
The study is based on 16 women who have experienced in politics as they will give us more detailed answers on the challenges and possibilities of increasing women representation globally. Both the developed and third world countries have less representation of women as the problem cuts across the globe meaning the solution for the problem will be a global solution.
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1.0CHAPTER ONE: Introduction
In the current 21st century, Women are facing substantial challenges regarding their participation in politics all over the world. The major factor that appears to impede their advancement in politics is majorly the socio-economic factors. Inter-parliamentary Union report of 2017 indicated that the female representation rate is 23.6 % in the entire world and this is a wake-up call to women as it can be interpreted that they need to do a little bit more to achieve equality in politics (Richardson 2017, p.14). For the equal contribution of women in policy-making to support gender equality of both genders, various governments have initiated an effort to enhance the contribution of women and part of the strategy made is through legislative measures (Conway, Bourque, & Scott 1989, p.322).
The famous Greek philosopher Aristotle stated, “In the differences between sexes, men are considered better and more in nature, while women are underestimated”. The representation of gender quota has been remarkable throughout the world and this is a vital step towards raising the number of women in the decision-making bodies. According to Althaus-Reid (2000, p.95), the core aim of the quota system is to enhance the contribution of women in government. For the women to be involved in politics, in a political environment, the quota is applicable temporarily in anticipation of the removal of barriers that block women from political contributions. In various developing countries in the world have guaranteed quota at both national and sub-national governments so that gender can be guaranteed. On the other hand, in several developed countries, political parties have willingly approved quota, this clearly indicates that women can be ready to lend a hand in political empowerment (De Vaus, & Mcallister (1989, p.134).
Politics and genders are two prominent points that arise from feminist work in international relations. The study conducted by feminist scholars helps us to empirically, politically, and intellectually pay attention to women in the global political system and highlighting the important things that women are doing regarding politics. According to Hassim (2015, p. 111) Women have been in the forefront in playing a vital role in international politics, and among those who have been in limelight include Angela Dorothea Merkel of Germany, Hillary Clinton of America, Dilma Rousseff of Brazil as well as Park Geun-Hye from South Korea among many more. Nevertheless, with the massive impact that these women have made in global politics, it’s unfortunate that less attention has paid generally paid on the contribution of women in global politics (Hummer 2017, p. 89-95).
Grahn and Wilson (2018, p. 39), stated that the empowerment of women in politics will only happen when the women get a reservation in it. Social obstacles can also be conquered when women are raised with their foundation activated into politics. For the contribution of women organizations, the Indian government is yet to take any concrete steps, and this is actively demonstrated in the form of political power. Speed, Hernández and Stephen (2006, p. 93) argued that the political strengthening of women is not the foundation of their economic status. Women have waited for quite a long waited for politics to come because the popular political parties rarely give women a chance into politics.
In the majority of societies, the activities of women and men are separated inside as well as outside of the house. Consequently, the socio-mobility of women are demarcated and controlled. It is quite obvious that men are given better education as compared to women hence making them competitive (Sainsbury 2003, p. 23). This has made women depend on men due to limited resources that are outside their house and therefore, in socio, political as well as economical sector men have become the foundation of power. According to Konde (2005, p. 128), the domination of men in decision making organs in most of the country has subjected the women to negligence and has also killed any chance of raising the concerns of women or encouraging their contribution to politics. This can only change the women claim what is rightfully there and that is an equal space of participation in politics
Global politics, in general, refers to interactions, transactions, and relationships in a political way around the world. On the other hand, the gender gap is the idea of voting differently on different issues among men and women. In most scenarios, around the globe, women have played important roles politically. The women have made various contributions to politics which include finding solutions to issues like insecurity concerning food, health crisis, drafting the constitution to ensure it does not limit women and youth, coming up with policies that impact on gender sensitivity, and among others issues regarding the environment (Falola, & Amponsah 2013, p. 63).
This study will focus on the general representation of women in politics globally, as it analyses the barriers that stand between women and political positions. This study will highlight the global pattern of the representation of women in various political houses as well as the situation in political parties that also play a part in discouraging women from contesting.
1.2 Statement problem
Women face major challenges when they attempt to participate in politics, many scholars have failed in their attempts to give detailed on the challenges that the women go through in politics and the complex relationship between their ambition as women in global politics as well as the society perception about their leadership qualities. Nevertheless, the main concern in the study is that there is biased in political leadership as women with political ambition face an uphill task to win any electoral seat while for men their masculinity is often perceived as a sign of leadership making them dominant in the political realm across the world. This research will give us the challenge to view women beyond the predominant function that they play in politics
1.3 Objective of the Study
The general objective of the study will be analyzing the relationship between women and global politics by focusing on the challenges that women face in political leadership.
1.4 Research objectives
- To explore the relationship between women and global politics
- To establish the challenges that women face while seeking political leadership
1.5 Research questions.
- How is the relationship between women and global politics?
- Why women face challenges while seeking political leadership?
1.6 Significant of the Study
This study adds more perspective and insights to the existing body of knowledge about women in general and their impact on politics globally. In addition to this, the findings of the study are vital globally for various governments’ institutions as well as global bodies as it will make the authorities have a clear understanding of the challenges that women face while they pursue their political dreams. Among the challenges that will be highlighted in the study include, gender stereotypes, social constructs, culture, limited resources among others that impede women from taking political offices worldwide.
I.7 Justification of the study
The study is founded on the justification that most researchers admit that women face obstacles while trying to vie for political positions, it also acknowledges the fact that the women who are already in political offices face massive challenges based on their gender as compared to men. Nevertheless, most scholars have abandoned the role that women play or can play in politics as well as their contribution to politics that have made a big impact in shaping the world of politics. Scholars like Campbell 2013, Goldberg 1995, and Maddock, 1999 gave a good analysis of the challenges that women face in politics, on the other hand, scholars like Rutherford and Bayer gave out information advocating for the empowerment of women and gender equality globally. This paper gives a thorough assessment of the current dynamic political environment as it tries to assess whether the challenges that women face are the same across the world.
1.8 Scope of the study
The study will focus on women and the leadership position, other fields have massively improved and women have got a chance to be employed in the merit political arena to remain to lag. The study will, therefore,e lean on the political challenges that women face across the world.
1.9 Limitation of the study
The study will not have any geographical limitations. However, I will limit the study to cater to the women with political ambition as well as those who hold the political seat as from for a there we will be able to get the needed information for a comprehensive conclusion.
2.0 CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review
The chapter will focus on the literature review that will comprise of current knowledge including substantive findings as well as the theoretical-methodological contribution of different scholars on women and global politics. Various arguments made by various scholars on matters about women in politics. Also, various theories, including feminist and radical theory will be analyzed.
Gender equality remains to be elusive in politics in the 21st century. Maddock (1999, p. 56) stated that women who are majority actively participate in casting their votes during election worldwide but still, they remain behind as political leaders, either as nominated and elected leaders, therefore, rendering them ineffective to making a concrete decision in the legislative platforms. Furthermore, According to Grahn and Wilson (2018, p. 19) in the last two decades has recorded various women taking the top political position being heads of states and government in countries like Canada, Slovakia, Liberia, United Kingdom, Finland, Germany, and the Central Africa Republic. Despite this progress, the female representation in parliament falls under the 30% mark that was set in 1995 in Beijing during the United Nation fourth Conference on Women.
These women have gone through different challenges to get to the top of the political seats in their respective countries. Cole, Manuh, and Miescher (2007, p. 26) stated that history has shown how critical women are in society due to the vital roles that they play. In society women who are seen to be the foundation of society, women in the current time are a reprise.
Gender equality in politics remains to be indescribable in the 20th century. According to Norris (1997, p. 150), women being the majority of the total world population cast most ballots during the election time and yet they remain behind as political leaders in the respective houses. This issue persists even during the current times when women have equal constitutional rights in the modern democracies. Waylen et al (2016, p. 103) stated that the theoretical framework on women representation in global topics generally follows three different perspectives: the theoretical, structural-level factors which can be further divided into institutional as well as national participation of women in politics, and individual-level factors that exhibit the participation of particular women in political history.
In structural level factors, the study will focus on the 2 categories: regime type and economic growth. These will offer theoretical enlightenment for the hypothesis on a structural level. On the other hand, on individual-level factors the sturdy will give specific stories as well as personal obstacles traced by women political leaders as well as two main types of the individual; level factors to form a hypothesis on an individual level (Sjoberg, & Gentry (2011, p. 189).
2.1 Regime type
The majority of the theories about state regimes state that regime type openly impinges on the contribution and representation of women in politics. According to democracy theories, men and women are represented equally in such kinds of regime, and their participation, as well as representation rights in politics and other spheres, is equal Das (2007, p.124) stated that “If democracy is applauded as the best form of government then political empowerment includes the power of decision-making; being a gender-neutral term. If development is structured in any form then it includes social recognition of women’s political and economic credibility and capability”. Therefore, the theory implies that the higher the degree of democracy the more they’re likely to be chances of the progress of women’s political contribution as well as their entrée to political institutions.
According to Waylen et al (2016, p. 203) countries with regimes that are democratic support women’s participation as compared to the countries with autocracies. Stockemer (2009, p.430) was of the notion that the state needs to offer its citizens freedom politically and also enhance self-development: “Ideally women should have both the right to equal involvement in decision-making processes and the right to take a stand on issues…” in affirming this statement, Thanikodi and Surgitha (2007, p. 590) assert that the elevated level of female political contribution in democracies as compared with nondemocracies can be made clear by the duration of the regime. Hence, the longer the life of democracy, the higher the number of women engaged in politics.
This occurrence is explained in detail by stating that the longer democracy subsists, the difficult it is for the government as well as opposition to change the regime. Levitsky and Way (2002, p. 64) concur on this point, highlighting the fact that if country democracy lasts for about 20-30 years, the likelihood of the country to remain democratic is high. Nevertheless, it does not bind the countries that have recently transitioned to democracy.
Baron 2007, p. 220) stated that East European countries, as well as Latin American that recently transitioned into democracies, have demonstrated the essence of women in politics, thus it is in contention whether the period of political regime, particularly democracy shape or does not shape the high female participation in politics.
Stockemer (2009, p. 441) consent to the fact the democracy means the participation of both sexes politically, he goes further and suggests practical evidence by giving us the example of Tolleson-Rinehart and Josephson(2016, p. 312), which validates that female participation in democracy is at the higher level. Out of 65 democratic countries, the participation of women in parliament is more than in the states that are indifferent regime types. Patterson (2000, p. 501) also highlights the function of leaders of the country in promoting the political participation of women. He goes further and says that national leaders in democratic nations have a huge likelihood to respond to the pressure by women because in democracy women have equal rights to promote as well as support gender-related concerns such as the participation of women in politics (Patterson 2000, p. 507). Thus, countries that have got a strong presidency might have a stronger influence on endorsing female’s participation than democracies.
To demonstrate the impact of democracy we may weigh it against the authoritarianism where women are liable to struggle to get into political positions. Waylen (1996, p. 301) stated that in authoritarian regimes women’s function is “traditional” and restricted to housewife’s or mother’s roles. These types of values discourage the female to endeavour for higher political positions and, in fact, dissuade their progress.
Nevertheless, some theorist insists that it’s not the level of democracy, but relatively the progression of democratization has more effect on female’s political participation (Fallon, Swiss & Veteran 2012) for the theorist, the significance of the type of regime is uncertain because in non-democratic states the participation of women in legislation is high, though they have less political power. The research demonstrates the characteristics of the process of democratization as a “nation’s pre-democratic legacy, historical electoral experience, and quota implementation” (Fallon, Swiss and Veteran 2012, p.400). Can increase the participation of women equally in both the democratic and non-democratic countries.
In addition to this, in democratic countries, a varied range of participation rates is witnessed. Stockemer (2009, p. 438) observed that surprisingly some of the democratic countries have the lowest number of females in politics. This he proved by conducting a study on 98 countries which included America (central and south), Asia, Africa as well as the Pacific regions to test on regime’s impact effect on women’s participation in politics and in doing the research analysis he identified the fact that an average of 17.7% national deputies, by this it was clear that democracies have only considerable more women in parliament as compared to non-democracies, whose average was 16%(Stockemer 2009, 437). This indicates that the support for the promotion of females in politics is at the same level in both democracies and non-democracies; in a nutshell, the impact of democracy is not extensively different than the impact of non-democracy. Fallon, Swiss, and Viiterna also support the same statement by arguing that the country that has recently transit than women on to democracies focus more on making party policies than women policies hence the women remain suppressed.
2.2 Economic growth
Economic growth is a core factor that can assist women to enter into politics (Norris 1996, p. 169). Extreme levels of urbanization, great prospect to access education as well as access to labor categories of affluent life all enhance women’s political participation. Affiliated changes in the traditional values about the paternalistic structure of politics may support women involved in political power, as well (Stockemer 2009, p. 442). Modernization, as well as 12 development theories, recommends that “… highly developed nations are likely to embrace a more liberal and egalitarian culture that are less developed nations” and this lengthens the functions of women in politics (Stockemer 2009, 436). The less the financial needs of women, the higher the chances they have for their development professionally. In this scenario, women would access the employment chances available, and this will further propel them to actively participate in politics. according to Fallon et al (2012, 400), an economic factor of the nation can impact women’s involvement, though this factor is viewed alongside social factors hence putting it as a socio-economic factor carries more weight, in comparison to cultural and political factors.
2.3 Feminist theory
Feminist theory is a core theory in sociology that swing its assumptions, systematic lens as well as contemporary focus away from the masculine point of view and experience as well as in the direction of that of women. About this, feminist theory highlights the social problems and matters that are otherwise misplaced or overlooked by the historically prevailing male viewpoint within social theory.
According to feminist theory, the gender-power-order usually exists in our culture; it sets the existing power relationships as well as shaping it. Grahn and Wilson state that it happens that all feminists share the idea that diverse social benefits as we; as the social burdens relying on the sex an individual is born on (Grahn & Wilson 2018, p. 97). The essential feature of feminist political theory is the idea that women and their circumstances are significant to political analysis. Its focus lies in inquiring the fact that men happen to have more power as well as a concession in comparison to women and asking how it can be changed (Richardson 2016, p. 403).
2.3.1 Feminism and representation
One essential point in the feminist political view is that disparities among women in categories such as ethnicity, generation, race, and class have a great effect on their welfare as well as their priorities (Grahn & Wilson 2018, p. 127). There is a significant distinction among women that should not be ignored. At the same time, the differences between women and men also play a vital function in the politics of representation. The traditional cultures have often comprised a lower female representation in comparison to individual state culture as well as moral culture. Falola and Amponsah (2013, p. 81) also highlight how sex-role socialization is a core factor that affects the representation of women in politics. According to Norris (2007, p. 91) women are often taught diverse functions in life to the extent that it’s assumed that the house is their area of functionality while politics is left for men. In addition to this, the fact that house chores, as well as a family responsibility, act as an obstacle to the participation of women in politics as well as public life.
3.0 Chapter Three: Research Methodology
Chapter three comprises of research design which is the design used in the study, the target population and why it was chosen, sampling design which will discuss how the sample was selected, instrumentation which is the description of the research instruments that the researcher will use to come up with the information, methods of data collection describing the data collection procedures and how they were administered in the field, reliability, and validity of the data collection instruments and the data analysis methods and procedures.
The target population in this study are women who will be randomly selected to respond to questionnaires that the researcher will have prepared. The researcher used interviews. In this case, through sampling, the researcher was able to find the ideal women that will take part during the interview session. The collected data were analyzed both quantitative and qualitative to improve the validity and reliability of the research study.
The research question aims to have clear insights into what hinders women in participating in politics as well as identifying the actors that would contribute to the increase of women in political participation. With this in mind, the best-suited research method was qualitative research.
The study was conducted during an eight weeks field study that involved qualitative in-depth interviews that are more conversation as well as the empirical foundation of the study, which centers itself on women’s political contribution case across the world. A maximum of 16 interviews was conducted with female political leaders mostly the Member of Political parties across the globe from different continents. The qualitative approach was also suited for the fact that the interview questions seek to describe the aspect of under-representation of women in political offices.
The interviews were conducted on a one on one basis, with women political leaders, the questions asked were revolving around the research objectives. The interviewees all came from various political parties with 4 being members of parliament, 6 being women that hold a leadership position in a political party and the remaining 6 were n aspiring politicians. The interview was semi-structured Every interviewee was asked questions regarding their political journey, and the challenges that the female candidates face during the political process this was in line with the research objectives.
3.1 Research design
The study used the case study research design to aid the plan of understanding the low representation of women in politics. This design was most suited for the fact that it digs deep into the issues and focusing on the context brings with it an advantage of providing answers in detail which will enhance a deeper understanding of the problem. This can be productive when continuing studies that are made with one or several cases. The case study design has been extensively criticized for failing to generalize the results. The political representation of women was treated as an independent variable. By putting the focus on female representation s the dependent variable rather than the independent variable shifts the focus to be mainly on women’s political participation (Wide 2006, p.3).
Women participation in politics should not exclusively be seen in regards to the women represented, but it should extend to their influence or impact as well as their functions in politics, therefore, based on this, this study explored both the significant representation as well as the descriptive representation which means it explores both the functions of women and the number of women that are represented in national parliament across the globe. Elucidating the degree of variation in the representation of women were carried out by identifying the various independent variable.
3.2 The case study as a methodological tool
In this study, the causal mechanism was used to explain the phenomenon of low representation of women in politics. Robert K Yin stated that a case study was the most appropriate approach when the questions are of the kind that aims to understand and describe in-depth a certain social phenomena hence the case of this study Yin 2009, p.4)
The questions than answers the essential issue and intent of the study is both explanatory characters as well as descriptive
3.3 Material
A total of 16 interviews were carried out with female leaders, their representatives from different political parties as well as the NGOs that have the agenda of increasing the participation of women in parliament. Due to the less number of women in parliament, the interview was not aimed to generalize the functions of women in the parliament; rather the aim was to assess their explicit experience as well as their perception of the hindrance for women to get into the political arena and what actions should be taken to increase their participation politically.
The duration of interviews was 30 to 40 minutes and the interviews were different as it depended on the field the interviewee represented. All the interviews had different themes that represented the research questions and the interviews were made in English. There was also a notable difference in the skills of communication from different interviewees and this made an impact on the quality of interviews made.
4.0 Chapter Four
Introduction
The chapter will examine the challenges that women in politics and those aspiring to face politics encounters. Some of the challenges that will be disused include cultural, economic, religious, and legal structures.
From the data collected in the stud,y all the respondents agreed to the fact that women face major challenges in comparison to men. The 4 legislatures admitted to the fact that it was hard to win party nomination as well as trust from both the genders based on the mindset whereby the society has constantly viewed women as a servant rather than a leader.
One of the respondents who failed to clinch a legislative seat was however of the opinion that the work rate of women in campaigns is a bit on the lower side as compared to men. She stressed that when women start campaigning as men and investing in the campaign as their counterparts then they have a chance of increasing their numbers in political offices globally she stated that “the world is different now as women have been embraced and are supported politically by any organization, this should not mean that they should relax, instead they need to be more versatile and vocal, they need to be trained on how to win the hearts of the voters, rather than viewing themselves as inferior to their competitors.”
The rest of the respondents had a contrary opinion and they thought that though a lot has been done, much is left to be done and for the women to be at par they need to dig deep and use many resources. They unanimously pointed out the lack of enough resources during campaigns to be the main obstacle for them to clinch political seats.
On the religious factors then there was a unanimous answer all the religion pointing out how the Arabic nation experiences the worst case of women representation in politics and considering the majority of the countries in the Arabic world are under anarchy. One of the members of the parliament stated that the requirement by religious outfits for women to remain submissive has been used politically against women and has been misinterpreted so subject the women into servants rather than leaders of the society.
The study also affirmed the previous position of economic factors playing in limiting women in taking political positions globally. This was also unanimously agreed by the interviewees as they pointed out to the fact that when women became mothers they spent most of their time with the young ones hence missing opportunities of improving their financial status and at the end of it they compete with men who have more financial muscle to render them useless at the ballot.
The conversation around women rights, as well as their political involvement, has happened for over 40 years now since 1975 when it officially started with the implementation of the Convention On The Elimination Of all Forms Of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the conversation continued and led into the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action which later on was officially adopted into the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals.
In the course of the conferences, the action plans as well as the declaration, an accord emerged that women ought to play equal functions in politics; provisional special measures like quota are a valuable way of increasing the participation of women politically. And legislation that is quota-based is insufficient to stand in isolation in achieving the total and equal involvement of women in politics.
Women, the cornerstone of society, era are representing the politics of most countries around the world. Seeing history, you find that women are playing an important role in creating society (Marchal 2014, p.187). In the current time, the female role is known to be religious, philosophical as well as political. The communal framework, as well as women’s politics, had been immensely highlighted to encourage women to join politics.
| Representation of women in parliament- World average | |||
| Single House or Lower House | Upper House or Senate | ||
| Total MPS | 39,181 | Total MPS | 7,001 |
| Men | 29,659 | Men | 5,313 |
| Women | 9,522 | Women | 1,688 |
| Percentage of women | 24.3% | Percentage of women | 24.1% |
Source: http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm accessed (17th April 2019)
According to Inter-Parliamentary Union data of 2019, it is evident that out of 29,659 members of the lower house, women are only 9,522 which represents 24.3% and the upper house has 5,313 women out of 7,001 members, women only occupy 24.1% of the upper house. According to the above report, the total number of women represented in both houses is 24.2% which falls short of the 30% mark set by the United Nation fourth Conference on Women.
Source: http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm accessed (17th April 2019)
An essential growth has been made in some regions, particularly the Nordic countries, where the average representation of women totals 42.5%. In the above IPU report of 2019, there is a considerable difference between the regional countries regarding the representation of women. The representation of females is highest with 42.5% and lowest in the Pacific with a combined total of 18.4%.
In the same context, America is represented by 30.7% in both houses while in sub-Saharan Africa both houses are represented by 23.7%. Despite Asia being one of the prominent continents, the situation of women is approximated to be 19.6% of women in both houses while in Europe the number still falls short of the target set by the United Nation fourth Conference on Women as it is at 27.4% when Nordic countries data are expunged in the list.
4.1 Socio-cultural factors
In the case study, it was unanimously agreed that traditions underline the women’s crucial roles as a mother or rater a housewife and hence confine them into that task. A traditional tough, patriarchal value system favors the roles that are sexually separated as well as traditional cultural morals fight against the progression and involvement of women in any process that is political. The world has been served by the perception or mindset of “the woman’s place”. This notion dictates that women are only supposed to play the function of a ‘working mother’ which is basically a low paid one as well as apolitical (Frederiksen & Goodman 1995, p. 400).
According to the findings it was surprisingly clear that there are men who even go to the extent of telling a woman how to vote or who to vote for. This is in line with Sjoberg & Gentry 2011, p. 184)findings, This is the situation that surrounds women as they are majorly seen in a traditional acceptable setup, as their apolitical position continue to dictate, and many women face it. This is more evident in developing countries. According to Gottlieb and Toye (2013, p. 352,), the cultural notion about women can influent their level of representation in the entire political process, from the decision of an individual woman to enter politics, to the selection of party candidates and finally to the last day of voting. The findings in the study give a clear indication that women do face discrimination as leaders because masculinity in society has always been linked to leadership.
Culturally, there is an assumption that women are supposed to be led rather than lead, as a matter of fact, stereotype ideas concerning make up major obstacles; societal opinion about the leadership capacity of women, their lack of boldness is among the barriers that are perceived to hinder their involvement in politics(Richardson 2017, p. 93). Socialization theories have also stressed the lasting divisions of sex roles inside a society particularly the presence of egalitarian or rather traditional feelings towards women in both the public and private spheres. The theories of socialization stress that these attitudes are obtained in life at an early age through determining agencies that include the presence of traditional sex responsibility that is got from family or home, at school, or even at the workplace.
4.2 Religious factors
The study pointed religion to be a vital factor and a source of belief in most countries. All the dominant religions portray women as inferior to men and based on this religion massively been used in excluding women from the facet of, religious life, social and even political life across the globe. For instance, according to Norris (2007, p. 281) Protestantism endorses the practice of nonhierarchical religion as well as more readily acknowledges women as religious leaders in comparison to Catholicism as well as orthodox Christianity. Islamic laws, on the other hand, are distinctively interpreted in a way that constrains women’s activities. Therefore this demonstrates that the omission of women from religious institutions and leadership may hurt the status of women in society as well as restrain their opportunities and chances in politics and the general public life. Thus, Nelson and Caudhurī, (1994), religious remain to be one of the outdated cultural beliefs in the society of many countries that have immensely contributed to excluding women from the top position of leadership.
In the majority of the religion, authority and power are alleged to divinely belong to men thus, subduing women hence, women are persuaded to play roles that are subsidiary since it’s assumed that their role is in the kitchen while men are real decision-makers. The point of view of women being inferior to men has cut across all the dominant religions as well as the traditional religion which has been excluding women in key religious or political functions for quite some time now (Marchal, 2014, p. 83).
4.3 Economic factors
Women’s historical occurrence of prejudice positions them at a disadvantaged place economically. The socio-economic condition of women to a larger extend plays an essential role in improving their involvement as well as representation in decision-making bodies in politics. Concerning this Shvedova (2002) thought that the socio-economic status of women in the society has a straight power on their involvement in the political institutions as well as the elected bodies. In a nutshell, limited economic resources remain to be huge obstacles that stop women from getting involved in politics in huge numbers. Enabling women to easily access economic resources, remains to be the core solution of increasing their presence in the political realm.
Chapter Five
Chapter five will discuss the general findings and provide recommendations on the ways that can make sure women’s opportunities in politics are expanded and both genders can compete with family.
The socio-economic factors majorly contributed to hindering the women in clinching political position, the study clearly demonstrated this as all the interviewees pointed it and stressed the fact that women positions in the society have made it difficult for them to access the needed resources that would place them at the better position of clinching political seats globally.
Religious factors disappear to be an inhibitor mostly to the women in the n Arabic nation Wertheimer doctrine shun their aggressiveness and make them less vocal in the society. The Arabic nation is the worst when it comes to the representation of women in politics. One notable progress in which it was pointed out during the study is how Ethiopia decided to appoint more women in ministerial positions as well as appointing the first woman president of the country in 2018. This is a good sign and more is expected from the neighboring nations
There has been gradual progress globally when it comes to increasing the number of women in politics; this is even after receiving a massive backup from different NGOs and other bodies with the same aim. The findings remarkably showed that the majority of the women are also a big hindrance as they share the opinion that they are not supposed to engage their time in politics. This is a link to various underlying factors like the fact that society generally does not accept women to be in public offices, so this sinks into women and they acknowledge that opinion.
This can also be viewed as the fact that women have acknowledged the traditional social system where they believe their main role is to be the housewives or caretakers of their families and they should not engage in anything professional like politics. These words were expressed by the interviewees as all of them noted the fact that there is a dislike in women holding public office among women just as it is from men.
Another hindrance according to the interviewees is the negative views that the society has about the introduction of gender quotas in parliament as well as the political parties. Gender quotas are the only guaranteed way of working towards a balanced gender representation in politics. According to the second interview, women are naturally intelligent, however, the challenges they face blocks them from becoming members of parliament and occupying other political leadership roles, and gender quotas is one way of eliminating only part of the obstacle. If a woman politician is demanded in the society then the political parties would be left with no choice and the promotion of women to political office will start taking its natural process. (Interview 091118, Magdalena Anikashvili).
5.2 Resources
The limited resources that female have has been extensively discussed under the theories of feminism and gender. The theory of male conspiracy which is a derivative of feminist principles is based on the notion that men are selective towards women which is an explanation for the low representation of women. From the theory, one could deduce the fact that women have limited access to particular resources that would push their political agenda and this, therefore, locks them out. The sex-role socialization theory also is to be blamed for the low representation of women in politics: this is based on the fact that women and men are taught different roles when they grow up, this has been linked to the general public perception that places women in the house and men at the center of organs or bodies that decides in the society. It is for the fact that the house chores and family responsibility put more weight on women as compare to men hence restricting them from taking political positions (Clark 1991, p.70-75).
5.3 Political culture
Political culture and the system as such make up a key problem with permitting women to get involved as well as be represented in political offices. In political science, the phrase “politics is male-dominated.” Is a common phrase. This assumption has been questioned by various feminists, questioning how acceptable it has become for masculinity to be treated as a political notion (Bourque & Grossholtz 1998:24-25).
According to the findings of the study lack of internal democracy was unanimously mentioned by all the interviewees this was in addition to concealed biased rules as well as the nomination procedures at party’s primaries which are nontransparent. These concealed and biased rules and the non-transparent nomination processes within the parties act as the essential sign that discriminates towards women. This creates a toxic environment for the organization that endorses women in political parties.
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