An Analysis of Richard White’s “The Winning of the West”

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The Role of the Sioux in the Western Expansion

Introduction

The Winning of the West is an excellent work by Richard White that covers Sioux history, politics and culture. Each section discusses how various events shaped both Sioux culture and history. For instance, there is a significant discussion of the effects of European diseases like smallpox, cholera and measles on these people. It also includes detailed discussions of treaties signed between Native Americans and American government officials during the 1800s. There are many questions that White answers in his book. Thus, this paper will discuss the four most pertinent issues in the book: disease, numbers of buffalo, the serfs and the treaties.

Discussion

1. How important was disease to Sioux expansion? Why did the Sioux not suffer as poorly as other nations? What did it mean in terms of warfare and trade with whites? Lastly, would the threat of disease convince them to change from a sedentary society to a mobile one?

The disease significantly impacted Sioux’s success during the period covered by Richard White. For example, smallpox killed off half of the Lakota population in 1837 during an outbreak that also spread to other Native American groups like the Oglala and Arapaho (White 38). Additionally, measles broke out among these groups periodically during this era leading to frequent outbreaks that led to high mortality rates for those infected (White 54). However, because of their nomadic lifestyle and hunting practices, the Sioux were better able to avoid contact with pathogens than more stationary peoples, such as Pueblo Indians who lived in villages. Consequently, because they avoided prolonged exposure to diseases caused by contact with Europeans, there were few records indicating epidemics occurring among the Dakota people before the 1850s. In terms of warfare and trade with whites, the Sioux could take advantage of opportunities when they arose without worrying about catastrophic losses through the pandemic. Moreover, the threat of disease convincing them to change from a sedentary society to a mobile one would depend mainly on if new threats emerge or old ones reemerge. If new diseases showed up, then the answer would be no. However, should old threats reappear, such as smallpox or measles, then this may lead them to become more nomadic again.

2. The buffalo and their vanishing numbers played a huge part in why the Sioux pushed south. Why? What role did whites play in buffalo numbers? What did the dropping numbers force the Sioux to do?

The buffalo’s disappearing numbers led to several terrible results for the Lakota Sioux. Firstly, there was no longer enough food for all members of the tribe, which meant many had to live off plants or starve. Secondly, so much energy went into hunting buffalo that it left little time for anything else, including raiding enemy tribes or defending against them, which led to increased conflict and bloodshed. Due to the decreasing numbers of buffalos, trading became harder since buffalo hides and meat could not be used as barter. Finally, the people’s economy collapsed without a steady supply of buffalos, leading them to depend more heavily on American traders for goods. With these consequences in mind, it is easy to see how significant the loss of animals was for Sioux society. The whites significantly diminished the buffalo population by introducing diseases like smallpox to the herd. In addition, they killed large numbers of animals by gunfire or fencing off sections of land where herds gathered to make a profit when they sold those animals later. Whites also harvested large amounts of bones and then shipped them back east, where manufacturers turned them into fertilizer, glue and other products, which led to even more deaths among buffalo herds. The dropping numbers forced the Sioux to look elsewhere for resources. One way was through attacking weaker neighboring tribes such as the Arapahos and Cheyennes, who often gave up their land willingly. Another way was by adapting the nomadic ways of their ancestors and becoming increasingly reliant on American traders for supplies.

3. White describes the Sioux using smaller tribes as “serfs”. What did he mean? What benefits did this bring? How did they control the tribes?

The Sioux used small tribes as serfs to protect the tribes, which gave them an advantage over competing native groups because they had more human resources available that could be used for war or hunting animals. They also could be easily replaced if killed, so there was no need to worry about losing a significant population. White mentions how the Sioux benefited economically, too, since they got a cut of every transaction made by these tribes. White meant that the serfs (smaller tribes) were involved in all transactions but were not allowed to trade among themselves. He says the Sioux controlled them by ensuring they stayed within a given territory, punishing anyone who crossed borders and coercing tribes into giving up members when requested. Thus, the tribes were controlled through violence, punishment and forced membership transfer. In return for these services, the Sioux provided food, clothing, horses and guns to those under their protection.

4. Why did the US hold the Laramie Peace Conference? The Sioux-Arapaho- Cheyenne alliance gained several important benefits from this, at least initially; what were they? What happened between the US and the Sioux after this?

The United States held the Laramie Peace Conference for two main reasons. One was to ensure that the Native Americans came into negotiations armed only with verbal or diplomatic weapons instead of guns which could have been disastrous if violence broke out. Second, the United States wanted to prevent intertribal conflicts because they threatened American settlements, farms and railroads. They also wanted to negotiate peace amongst all tribes before attempting to annex more land. After signing the Treaty of Fort Laramie, many people were optimistic that all Sioux hostilities would end. However, shortly after signing the treaty, Sioux warriors attacked settlers in Nebraska Territory, showing they had not given up on attacking white settlements. The Sioux-Arapaho- Cheyenne alliance gained essential benefits, such as establishing boundaries that set aside large amounts of territory exclusively for the Lakota tribe. Additionally, they received guarantees that they could continue hunting buffalo freely across this territory. In addition, the US and the Sioux understood that no Indians who lived east of these boundaries would enter the Sioux territory without permission. Both sides promised to use every effort to stop Indian raids in territories belonging to either side and agreed not to incite war on each other’s lands. Finally, both parties agreed to return captured horses and firearms taken during raids against the other party within ten days following any agreement reached.

Conclusion

Overall, Richard White’s The Winning of the West is an excellent read for Native Americans. It provides insight into the history and culture of these people while also introducing many significant events that took place during those times.

Work Cited

White, Richard. “The winning of the West: The expansion of the Western Sioux in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.” The Journal of American History 65.2 (1978): 319-343.